{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,28]],"date-time":"2024-08-28T08:34:37Z","timestamp":1724834077483},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,15]],"date-time":"2021-03-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1615766400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002367","name":"Chinese Academy of Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["No.XDA13010303"],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002367","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Studies of evapotranspiration on remote tropical coral islands are important to explore and sustain scarce freshwater resources. However, there is a significant knowledge gap between research to evaluate evapotranspiration based on remote sensing methods and the influences of different land use types on water dynamics on reclaimed coral islands. This study applied the remote-sensing-based Vegetation Interfaces Processes (VIP-RS) model to estimate actual evapotranspiration (ETa) on Zhaoshu Island, Yongxing Island, and Yongshu Island in the South China Sea from 2016 to 2019. The results showed that the average annual ETa of Zhaoshu Island, Yongxing Island, and Yongshu Island was 685 mm, 530 mm, and 210 mm, respectively. Annual transpiration (Ec) and soil evaporation (Es) exhibited similar patterns on the natural islands; however, Es controlled the water consumption on the reclaimed islands. Water dynamics exhibited seasonal fluctuations due to the uneven distribution of precipitation (PRP). However, ETa of the natural islands was higher than PRP in the dry season, indicating vegetation has to absorb water from the groundwater to sustain growth. The results also agreed with the analysis of dominant driving factors based on partial correlation analysis, which demonstrated that the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) is the most important factor that influences ETa, while relative humidity (RH) controlled the bare land or sparsely vegetated areas on the reclaimed islands. The setting of different land use types showed that vegetation and built-up or hardened roads took control of evapotranspiration and rainwater collection, respectively, which play important roles in water dynamics on corals islands. The evaluation of ETa based on a remote-sensing-based model overcame the difficulty in fieldwork observation, which improves the certainty and accuracy at a spatial scale. In addition, it gave us a new reference to protect and manage scarce freshwater resources properly.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13061110","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,16]],"date-time":"2021-03-16T02:16:54Z","timestamp":1615861014000},"page":"1110","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Evapotranspiration on Natural and Reclaimed Coral Islands in the South China Sea"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"http:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4205-1319","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shengsheng","family":"Han","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Water Cycle and Related Land Surface Processes, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"},{"name":"Sino-Danish Center, College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]},{"given":"Suxia","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Water Cycle and Related Land Surface Processes, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"},{"name":"Sino-Danish Center, College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]},{"given":"Shi","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Water Cycle and Related Land Surface Processes, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"}]},{"given":"Xianfang","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Water Cycle and Related Land Surface Processes, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"},{"name":"Sino-Danish Center, College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]},{"given":"Xingguo","family":"Mo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Water Cycle and Related Land Surface Processes, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"},{"name":"Sino-Danish Center, College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2017.02.047","article-title":"Hydrogeology and management of freshwater lenses on atoll islands: Review of current knowledge and research needs","volume":"551","author":"Werner","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaap9741","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.aap9741","article-title":"Most atolls will be uninhabitable by the mid-21st century because of sea-level rise exacerbating wave-driven flooding","volume":"4","author":"Storlazzi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1007\/s10040-009-0525-0","article-title":"Management of freshwater lenses on small Pacific islands","volume":"18","author":"White","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hydrogeol. J."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1016\/S0070-4571(04)80041-4","article-title":"Geology and hydrogeology of Tarawa and Christmas Island, Kiribati","volume":"Volume 54","author":"Falkland","year":"2004","journal-title":"Developments in Sedimentology"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Falkland, A., and Custodio, E. (1991). Hydrology and Water Resources of Small Islands: A Practical Guide, Unesco."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1144\/qjegh2012-063","article-title":"A review of small island hydrogeology: Progress (and setbacks) during the recent past","volume":"46","author":"Robins","year":"2013","journal-title":"Q. J. Eng. Geol. Hydrogeol."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"White, I., Falkland, T., and Scott, D. (1999). Droughts in Small Coral Islands: Case Study, South Tarawa, Kiribati, Unesco."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolecon.2006.03.017","article-title":"Sustainable development in small island developing states: Agricultural intensification, economic development, and freshwater resources management on the coral atoll of Tongatapu","volume":"61","author":"Green","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ecol. Econ."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2018.06.015","article-title":"On the resilience of small-island freshwater lenses: Evidence of the long-term impacts of groundwater abstraction on Bonriki Island, Kiribati","volume":"564","author":"Post","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Swanepoel, C.R. (2017). Effect of Coral Reefs on Wave Attenuation and Erosion: Mnemba Island, Zanzibar, University of Kwazulu-Natal."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeochem.2017.03.006","article-title":"Land-use change and managed aquifer recharge effects on the hydrogeochemistry of two contrasting atoll island aquifers, Roi-Namur Island, Republic of the Marshall Islands","volume":"80","author":"Hejazian","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Geochem."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1125","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1752-1688.1987.tb00864.x","article-title":"Water balance of pacific atolls 1","volume":"23","author":"Nullet","year":"1987","journal-title":"JAWRA J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-1694(01)00617-5","article-title":"Recharge and aquifer response: Northern Guam Lens Aquifer, Guam, Mariana Islands","volume":"260","author":"Jocson","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Woodroffe, C.D., and Falkland, A.C. (1997). Geology and hydrogeolgy of the cocos(Keeling) islands. Dev. Sedimentol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Falkland, A. (1994). Climate, Hydrology, and Water Resources of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Atoll Research Bulletin.","DOI":"10.5479\/si.00775630.400.1"},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"263","article-title":"Hydrology and Water Management on Small Tropical Islands","volume":"216","author":"Falkland","year":"1993","journal-title":"Hydrol. Warm Humid Reg."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1514","DOI":"10.1002\/eco.1601","article-title":"Proximity to encroaching coconut palm limits native forest water use and persistence on a Pacific atoll","volume":"8","author":"Krauss","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ecohydrology"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1905","DOI":"10.1007\/s10040-014-1160-y","article-title":"Modelling the response of fresh groundwater to climate and vegetation changes in coral islands","volume":"22","author":"Comte","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hydrogeol. J."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2006.07.006","article-title":"Partitioning energy and evapo-transpiration above and below a tropical palm canopy","volume":"139","author":"Roupsard","year":"2006","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11852-020-00774-4","article-title":"Biodiversity and nature conservation in island ecosystems: Spatiotemporal changes in Socotra archipelago (Yemen)","volume":"24","author":"Veettil","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Coast. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9075","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2020.1799450","article-title":"Using machine learning algorithm and landsat time series to identify establishment year of para rubber plantations: A case study in Thalang district, Phuket Island, Thailand","volume":"41","author":"Somching","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2163","DOI":"10.1080\/02626667.2014.950579","article-title":"Trends in land surface evapotranspiration across China with remotely sensed NDVI and climatological data for 1981\u20132010","volume":"60","author":"Mo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hydrol. Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1923(01)00266-0","article-title":"Simulating evapotranspiration and photosynthesis of winter wheat over the growing season","volume":"109","author":"Mo","year":"2001","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2003.09.009","article-title":"Multi-objective parameter conditioning of a three-source wheat canopy model","volume":"122","author":"Mo","year":"2004","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1007\/s11769-015-0741-6","article-title":"Spatial and temporal variability of thermal stress to China\u2019s coral reefs in South China Sea","volume":"25","author":"Zuo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chin. Geogr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124641","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2020.124641","article-title":"Evaluating dynamic mechanisms and formation process of freshwater lenses on reclaimed atoll islands in the South China Sea","volume":"584","author":"Sheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2014.03.035","article-title":"Formation and sedimentary evolution characteristics of Yongshu Atoll in the South China Sea Islands","volume":"84","author":"Zhu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2007.04.015","article-title":"Development of a global evapotranspiration algorithm based on MODIS and global meteorology data","volume":"111","author":"Mu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, K., Kimball, J.S., Nemani, R.R., and Running, S.W. (2010). A continuous satellite-derived global record of land surface evapotranspiration from 1983 to 2006. Water Resour. Res., 46.","DOI":"10.1029\/2009WR008800"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leuning, R., Zhang, Y.Q., Rajaud, A., Cleugh, H., and Tu, K. (2008). A simple surface conductance model to estimate regional evaporation using MODIS leaf area index and the Penman-Monteith equation. Water Resour. Res., 44.","DOI":"10.1029\/2007WR006562"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bastiaanssen, W.G.M., Cheema, M.J.M., Immerzeel, W.W., Miltenburg, I.J., and Pelgrum, H. (2012). Surface energy balance and actual evapotranspiration of the transboundary Indus Basin estimated from satellite measurements and the ETLook model. Water Resour. Res., 48.","DOI":"10.1029\/2011WR010482"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-1694(97)00147-9","article-title":"A biophysical process-based estimate of global land surface evaporation using satellite and ancillary data\u2014I. Model description and comparison with observations","volume":"205","author":"Choudhury","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"878","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM464.1","article-title":"Utility of remote sensing\u2013based two-source energy balance model under low-and high-vegetation cover conditions","volume":"6","author":"Li","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Allen, R.G., Pereira, L.S., Raes, D., and Smith, M. (1998). Crop Evapotranspiration-Guidelines for Computing Crop Water Requirements-FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 56, FAO."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"174","article-title":"Field evapotranspiration experiment in Zhaoshu Island of Xisha Islands, South China sea","volume":"40","author":"Han","year":"2021","journal-title":"Geogr. Res."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-1923(94)02215-6","article-title":"Evaporation from bare soil in a temperate humid climate\u2014Measurement using micro-lysimeters and time domain reflectometry","volume":"76","author":"Plauborg","year":"1995","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"790","article-title":"Ecological Adaptability of Seven Plant Species to Tropical Coral Island Habitat","volume":"25","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ecol. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"\u0160im\u016fnek, J., \u0160ejna, M., Saito, H., Sakai, M., and Genuchten, M.T.V. (2013). The Hydrus-1D Software Package for Simulating the Movement of Water, Heat, and Multiple Solutes in Variably Saturated Media, Department of Environmental Sciences, University of California Riverside. Version 4.17."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fayer, M.J. (2000). UNSAT-H Version 3.0: Unsaturated Soil Water and Heat Flow Model, Theory, User Manual, and Examples, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Report PNNL-13249.","DOI":"10.2172\/15001068"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"484","DOI":"10.1038\/387484a0","article-title":"Increased Australian wheat yield due to recent climate trends","volume":"387","author":"Nicholls","year":"1997","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lobell, D.B., and Field, C.B. (2007). Global scale climate\u2013crop yield relationships and the impacts of recent warming. Environ. Res. Lett., 2.","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/2\/1\/014002"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.11.360","article-title":"Contributions of climate change and vegetation greening to evapotranspiration trend in a typical hilly-gully basin on the Loess Plateau, China","volume":"657","author":"Bai","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total. Environ."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JG003648","article-title":"Seasonal divergence in the sensitivity of evapotranspiration to climate and vegetation growth in the Yellow River Basin, China","volume":"122","author":"Pei","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Biogeosci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.07.007","article-title":"Changes in reference evapotranspiration and its driving factors in the middle reaches of Yellow River Basin, China","volume":"607\u2013608","author":"She","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1007\/s11442-017-1399-z","article-title":"Contributions of climate change and human activities to ET and GPP trends over North China Plain from 2000 to 2014","volume":"27","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geogr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, G., Chen, D., Xu, C.-y., and Simelton, E. (2007). Trend of estimated actual evapotranspiration over China during 1960\u20132002. J. Geophys. Res., 112.","DOI":"10.1029\/2006JD008010"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1366","DOI":"10.2307\/2404777","article-title":"Ecophysiology of tropical dry evergreen forest, Thailand: Measured and modelled stomatal conductance of Hopea ferrea, a dominant canopy emergent","volume":"33","author":"Pitman","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Appl. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pour, S.H., Abd Wahab, A.K., Shahid, S., and Bin Ismail, Z. (2020). Changes in reference evapotranspiration and its driving factors in peninsular Malaysia. Atmos. Res., 246.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2020.105096"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6287","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1215844110","article-title":"Emergent relation between surface vapor conductance and relative humidity profiles yields evaporation rates from weather data","volume":"110","author":"Salvucci","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bailey, R.T., Jenson, J.W., and Olsen, A.E. (2010). Estimating the Ground Water Resources of Atoll Islands. Water, 2.","DOI":"10.3390\/w2010001"},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"1053","article-title":"Formation processes and influencing factors of freshwater lens in artificial island of coral reef in South China Sea","volume":"75","author":"Han","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Geogr. Sin."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1798","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2015.08.006","article-title":"Rainwater catchment system design using simulated future climate data","volume":"529","author":"Wallace","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1522","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2006.07.051","article-title":"Challenges in freshwater management in low coral atolls","volume":"15","author":"White","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"397","article-title":"The Soils of Kiritimati (Christmas) island, Kiribati, central Pacific: New information and comparison with previous studies","volume":"63","author":"Morrison","year":"2009","journal-title":"Report"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1109","DOI":"10.1111\/1755-6724.13327","article-title":"Change of Organic \u03b413C in Ornithogenic Sediments of the Xisha Archipelago, South China Sea and its Implication for Ecological Development","volume":"91","author":"Wu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Geol. Sin. Engl. Ed."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-018-0202-3","article-title":"Seabirds enhance coral reef productivity and functioning in the absence of invasive rats","volume":"559","author":"Graham","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Wallace, C.D. (2015). Atoll Island Freshwater Resources: Modeling, Analysis, and Optimization, Colorado State University."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/6\/1110\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,9]],"date-time":"2024-07-09T16:58:57Z","timestamp":1720544337000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/6\/1110"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,15]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3]]}},"alternative-id":["rs13061110"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs13061110","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,15]]}}}  <script>parent.window.postMessage('ixistenz.url:https://api.crossref.org/works/10.3390%2FRS13061110', '*'); </script> <div id='browserdiffcontainer' style='position: fixed; right: 10px; top: 10vh; min-width: 60px;  border: 1px solid white; background: rgb(251, 189, 0);; opacity: 0.9; font-family: helvetica, arial, sans serif;  font-size: 12px; z-index: 20001; padding-bottom: 20px;'><div onclick="toggle('browserdiffcontainerlist'); return false;" style='background: rgb(151, 89, 0);; color: white; '><strong>&nbsp; <span class='glyphicon glyphicon-minus'></span> NODES</strong></div><div id='browserdiffcontainerlist' style='padding-left: 10px; padding-right: 5px; max-height: 50vh; overflow: auto; '></div></div>
<script>
function toggle( divname ) {
  var x = document.getElementById( divname );
  if (x.style.display === 'none') {
    x.style.display = 'block';
  } else {
    x.style.display = 'none';
  }
} </script>