Međuspolnost
Međuspolne osobe, poznate i kao interseksualci, jesu osobe rođene sa bilo kojom od nekoliko varijacija karakteristika spola, uključujući hromosome, gonade, spolne hormone ili genitalije, koji prema Uredu Visokog komesarijata Ujedinjenih nacija za ljudska prava "ne odgovaraju tipskim definicijama za muško ili žensko tijelo". Iako opseg atipskih spolnih karakteristika može biti očigledan od rođenja kroz prisustvo fizički dvosmislenih genitalija, u drugim slučajevima te karakteristike mogu proći neprrmijećeno, predstavljajući kao dvosmislene unutrašnje reproduktivne organe ili atipskee hromozome koji osobi mogu ostati nepoznati cijeli život.[1]
Dodjela spola pri rođenju obično se poklapa sa anatomskim spolom djeteta i fenotip. Om. Izvješteno je da je broj porođaja na kojima je beba interspolna 0,018% ili oko 1,7%, ovisno o tome koji se uvjeti računaju kao interspolni.[2][3] The number of births with ambiguous genitals is in the range of 0.02% to 0.05%.[4] Ostala interspolna stanja uključuju atipske hromosome, spolne žlijezde ili hormone.[5] Neke interseksualne osobe mogu biti dodijeljene i odgajane kao djevojčice ili dječaci, ali potom se identificirati s drugim spolom kasnije u životu, dok se većina nastavlja identificirati sa dodijeljenim im spolom.[6][7]
Riječi koje se koriste za opisivanje interspolnih osoba osporavaju se i mijenjaju se tokom vremena i mjesta. Interseksualne osobe su se ranije zvale "hermafroditi" ili "prirođeni evnusi".[8][9] U 19. i 20. stoljeću neki medicinski stručnjaci osmislili su novu nomenklaturu u pokušaju da klasificiraju karakteristike koje su uočili, prvi pokušaj stvaranja taksonomskih sistema klasifikacije interspolnih stanja . Međuspolne osobe su kategorizirane ili sa "pravi hermafroditizam", "ženski pseudohermafroditizam" ili "muški pseudohermafroditizam".[10] Ovi se termini više ne koriste, a izrazi koji uključuju riječ "hermafrodit" smatraju se obmanjujućim, stigmatizirajućim i znanstveno promišljenim u odnosu na ljude.[11] Termin hermafrodit sada se koristi za opisivanje organizma koji može stvoriti i muške i ženske spolne ćelije.[12][13]
Neki ljudi s interspolnim osobinama koriste termin interspol, a neki više vole drugi jezik.[14] U kliničkim uvjetima pojam "poremećaji spolnog razvoja" (DSD) koristi se od 2006. godine,[15] promjena u jeziku koja se od svog uvođenja smatra kontroverznom.[16][17][18]
Interseksualne osobe se suočavaju sa stigmatizacija i diskriminacija od rođenja ili nakon otkrivanja interspolnih osobina u fazama razvoja kao što je pubertet. Intersex osobe mogu se suočiti sa čedomorstvom, napuštanjem i stigmatizacijom svojih porodica. Globalno, neka interspolna novorođenčad i djeca, poput one s dvosmislenim vanjskim genitalijama, kirurški su ili hormonski promijenjeni kako bi stvorili društveno prihvatljivije spolne karakteristike. Međutim, ovo se smatra kontroverznim, bez čvrstih dokaza o povoljnim ishodima.[19] Takvi tretmani mogu uključivati sterilizaciju. Odrasli, uključujući elitne sportistkinje, takođe su bili subjekti takvog tretmana.[20] Ova se pitanja sve češće razmatraju u okviru kršenje ljudskih prava, uz izjave međunarodnih organizacija[21][22] i nacionalne institucije za ljudska prava i etiku.[23] Organizacije interseksualnih osoba su također izdale izjave o kršenju ljudskih prava, uključujući Deklaraciju Međunarodnog foruma , 2013. U 2011, Christiane Völling je postala prva interspolna osoba za koju se zna da je uspješno tužila za naknadu štete u slučaju pokrenutom zbog hirurške intervencije bez njenog pristanka. U aprilu 2015. godine Malta je postala je prva država koja je zabranila medicinske intervencije, bez pristanka radi modifikacije seksualne anatomije, uključujući anatomsku pripadnost interspolnih osoba.[24][25]
Demografski podaci
uredi| Stanje | Spolna specifičnost | Približna učestalost |
|---|---|---|
| Kasnopojavna kongenitalna nadbubrežna hiperplazija (neklasični oblici) | Žene (muškarci su uglavnom asimptomatski)[26] | 1/50–1000 rođenja (0,1–0,2% do 1–2% ovisno o populaciji |
| Hipospadije | Muškarci | 1/200–10,000 muških beba (0,01%–0,5%), procjene prevalencije se znatno razlikuju[27] |
| Klinefelterov sindrom | Muškarci | 1/500–1.000 muške novorođenčadi (0,1–0,2%)[28] |
| Gnotip 47, XXX e | Žene | 1/1.000 ženskih beba (0,10%)[29] |
| Turnerov sindrom | Žene | ½.500 ženskih beba (0,04%)[30] |
| Mülerovska ageneza (vagine, tj. MRKH sindrom) | Žene | ¼.500 ženskih beba (0,022%)[31] |
| Vaginska atrezija/ageneza | Žene | 1/5.000 ženskih beba (0,02%)[32] |
| Kongenitalna nadbubrežna hiperplazija (klasični oblik) | Nema (ali sa virilizacijom ženske djece)[33] | One in 10,000–20,000 births (0.01–0.02%) |
| Hromosomski mozaicizam 45,X/46,XY | Muškarci | 1/6.666 novorođenih (0,015%)[34] |
| Genotip XYY | Muškarci | 1/7.000 muške novorođenčadi (0,0142%)[35] |
| Genotip XXYY | Muškarci | 1/18.000–40.000 muških beba (0,0025%–0.0055%)[36] |
| Genotip XX (muškarac) | Muškarci | 1/20.000 muških beba (0,005%)[37] |
| Ovotestikulski poremećaj spolnog razvoja | Niko | 1/20.000 beba (0,005%)[38] |
| Kompletna gonadna disgeneza 46, XY | Fenotipske žene[39] | 1/80.000 ovorođenih (0,0013%)[40] |
| Sindrom neosjetljivosti na androgen (potpuni i djelimični fenotipovi) | Genetički muškarci[41] | 1/99.000 novorođenih (0,001%)[42] |
| Idiopatska (nema vidljivog medicinskog razloga) | Nijedan | 1/110.000 rođenja (0,0009%)[43] |
| Jatrogeni (uzrokovano medicinskim tretmanom, npr. progestin primijenjen trudnoći) | Nijedan | Bez procjene |
| Nedostatak 5-alfa-reduktaze | Muškarci | Bez procjene |
| Mješovita gonadna disgeneza | Nijedan | Bez procjene |
| Anorhija | Muškarci | Bez procjene |
| Sindrom perzistentnog Mülleovog kanala | Muški | Bez procjene |
Ispoljavanja u stanovništva mogu se razlikovati zbog genetičkih uzroka. U Dominikanskoj Republici nedostatak 5-alfa-reduktaze nije neuobičajen u gradu Las Salinas, što rezultira društvenim prihvatanjem interspolne osobine.[44] Muškarci s tom osobinom nazivaju se "güevedoces" (španski za "jaja u dvanaest"). 12 od 13 porodica imalo je jednog ili više muških članova porodice koji su nosili gen. Ukupna incidencija u gradu bila je jedan na svakih 90 muškaraca koji su bili nositelji, dok su drugi muškarci bili ne-nositelji ili ne-pogođeni nositelji.[45]
Također pogledajte
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phenotypically, pure XY GD individuals are unambiguously phenotypic females (previously known as Swyer syndrome) but usually internally possess hypoplastic müllerian structures.
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In the genetic male, mutations of the androgen receptor (AR) gene cause phenotypes ranging from female to subfertile male.
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Dopunska literatura
uredi- Davis, Georgian (2015). Contesting Intersex, The Dubious Diagnosis. NYU Press. New York. ISBN 978-1-4798-3786-1.
- Elders, M Joycelyn; Satcher, David; Carmona, Richard (juni 2017). "Re-Thinking Genital Surgeries on Intersex Infants" (PDF). Palm Center. Arhivirano s originala (PDF), 12. 4. 2019. Pristupljeno 16. 4. 2021.
- Fausto-Sterling, Anne (2000). Sexing the Body: Gender Politics and the Construction of Sexuality. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-07714-4.
- Ghattas, Dan Christian; Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung (2013). Human Rights between the Sexes: A preliminary study on the life situations of inter*individuals. Berlin: Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung. ISBN 978-3-86928-107-0.
- Holmes, Morgan, ured. (2009). Critical intersex. Ashgate Publishing. Queer interventions. Burlington, VT. ISBN 978-0-7546-7311-8.
- Hughes, I A; Houk, C; Ahmed, S F; Lee, P A; LWPES1/ESPE2 Consensus Group (juni 2005). "Consensus statement on management of intersex disorders". Archives of Disease in Childhood. 91 (7): 554–563. doi:10.1136/adc.2006.098319. ISSN 0003-9888. PMC 2082839. PMID 16624884.
- Human Rights Commission of the City and County of San Francisco; de María Arana, Marcus (2005). A Human Rights Investigation Into The Medical "Normalization" Of Intersex People. San Francisco.
- Human Rights Watch (juli 2017). I Want to Be Like Nature Made Me. ISBN 978-1-62313-502-7.
- Jones, Tiffany; Hart, Bonnie; Carpenter, Morgan; Ansara, Gavi; Leonard, William; Lucke, Jayne (2016). Intersex: Stories and Statistics from Australia (PDF). Cambridge, UK: Open Book Publishers. ISBN 978-1-78374-208-0. Arhivirano s originala (PDF), 27. 5. 2018. Pristupljeno 2. 2. 2016.
- Jones, Tiffany (2018). "Intersex Studies: A Systematic Review of International Health Literature". Sage Open. 2018 (1): 1–22. doi:10.1177/2158244017745577.
- Karkazis, Katrina (2008). Fixing Sex: Intersex, Medical Authority, and Lived Experience. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-4318-9.
- Lee, Peter A.; Nordenström, Anna; Houk, Christopher P.; Ahmed, S. Faisal; Auchus, Richard; Baratz, Arlene; Baratz Dalke, Katharine; Liao, Lih-Mei; Lin-Su, Karen; Looijenga, Leendert H.J.; Mazur, Tom; Meyer-Bahlburg, Heino F.L.; Mouriquand, Pierre; Quigley, Charmian A.; Sandberg, David E.; Vilain, Eric; Witchel, Selma; and the Global DSD Update Consortium (28. 1. 2016). "Global Disorders of Sex Development Update since 2006: Perceptions, Approach and Care". Hormone Research in Paediatrics. 85 (3): 158–180. doi:10.1159/000442975. ISSN 1663-2818. PMID 26820577.
- National Advisory Commission on Biomedical Ethics, Switzerland (novembar 2012). On the management of differences of sex development. Ethical issues relating to "intersexuality".Opinion No. 20/2012 (PDF). 2012. Berne. Arhivirano s originala (PDF), 23. 4. 2015. Pristupljeno 20. 10. 2018.
- Organisation Intersex International Australia (april 2014). "Submission on the Review of Part B of the Ethical Guidelines for the Use of Assisted Reproductive Technology in Clinical Practice and Research, 2007". Sydney. Arhivirano s originala, 6. 10. 2014. Pristupljeno 6. 5. 2014.
- Regmi, Esan (2016). Stories of Intersex People from Nepal. Kathmandu. Arhivirano s originala, 28. 7. 2017. Pristupljeno 19. 3. 2021.
- Senate of Australia; Community Affairs References Committee (2013). Involuntary or coerced sterilisation of intersex people in Australia. Canberra. ISBN 978-1-74229-917-4.
- Tamar-Mattis, Anne (2014). "Medical Treatment of People with Intersex Conditions as Torture and Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment". u Center for Human Rights & Humanitarian Law; Washington College of Law (ured.). Torture in Healthcare Settings: Reflections on the Special Rapporteur on Torture's 2013 Thematic Report. Washington, DC. str. 91–104. Arhivirano s originala, 14. 3. 2016. Pristupljeno 16. 4. 2021.
- United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (2015). "Free & Equal Campaign Fact Sheet: Intersex" (PDF).
- UN Committee against Torture; UN Committee on the Rights of People with Disabilities; UN Subcommittee on Prevention of Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment; Juan Méndez; Dainius Pῡras; Dubravka Šimonoviæ; Marta Santos Pais; African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights; Inter-American Commission on Human Right (24. 10. 2016), "Intersex Awareness Day – Wednesday 26 October. End violence and harmful medical practices on intersex children and adults, UN and regional experts urge", Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights Missing
|author2=(pomoć); Missing|author10=(pomoć) - World Health Organization; OHCHR; UN Women; UNAIDS; UNDP; UNFPA; UNICEF (2014). Eliminating forced, coercive and otherwise involuntary sterilization, An interagency statement (PDF). ISBN 978-92-4-150732-5.
- Zwischengeschlecht (mart 2014). "IGM – Historical Overview. Hermaphrodites in the 'Developed World': From Legal Self-Determination to IGM, Supplement 1" (PDF). NGO Report to the 2nd, 3rd and 4th Periodic Report of Switzerland on the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) (2 izd.). str. 49–62.
Vanjski linkovi
uredi
- " What It's Like To Be Intersex", Lizz Warner, BuzzFeed