- Introduction
- Immunosuppression and Tuberculosis
- Tuberculosis and HIV
- Tuberculosis-associated Obstructive Kidney Injury
- Pathophysiology of Kidney Injury in Tuberculosis
- Clinical Manifestations
- Cutaneous and Renal Tuberculosis
- Tuberculosis and Interstitial Nephritis
- Tuberculosis and Glomerulopathy
- Tuberculosis and Chronic Kidney Disease
- Tuberculosis and Dialysis
- Tuberculosis and Transplantation
- Differential Diagnosis
- Evaluation of Laboratory Diagnosis
- Treatment
- Invasive Procedures
- Final Considerations
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Brosch R, Gordon SV, Marmiesse M, Brodin P, Buchrieser C, Eiglmeier K, Garnier T, Gutierrez C, Hewinson G, Kremer K, Parsons LM, Pym AS, Samper S, van Sooliongen D, Cole ST, 2002. A new evolutionary scenario for the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99: 3684–3689.
-
2.
World Health Organization, 2009. Global Tuberculosis Control 2004: Epidemiology, Strategy, Financing. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2009.
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Rieder HL, Snider DE Jr, Cauthen GM, 1990. Extrapulmonary tuberculosis in the United States. Am Rev Respir Dis 141: 347–351.
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4.
Kennedy DH, 1989. Extrapulmonary tuberculosis. In Ratledge C, Stanford JL, Grange JM, eds. The Biology of Mycobacteria. New York: Academic Press, 245–284.
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Jones BE, Young SM, Antoniskis D, Davidson PT, Kramer F, Barnes PF, 1993. Relationship of the manifestations of tuberculosis to CD4 cell counts in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Am Rev Respir Dis 148: 1292–1297.
-
6.
Matuck TA, Brasil P, Alvarenga MF, Morgado L, Rels MD, da Costa AC, Araújo M, Rodrigues ME, de Carvalho D de B, 2004. Tuberculosis in renal transplants in Rio de Janeiro. Transplant Proc 36: 905–906.
-
7.
Eastwood JB, Dilly SA, Grange JM, 1996. Tuberculosis, leprosy and other mycobacterial diseases. Cattell WR, ed. Infections of the Kidney and Urinary Tract. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 291–318.
-
8.
World Health Organization. Tuberculosis and HIV. Available at: http://www.who.int/hiv/topics/tb/en/. Accessed September 10, 2012.
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Jamal LF, Moherdaui F, 2007. Tuberculose e infecção pelo HIV no Brasil: magnitude do problema e estratégias para o controle. Rev Saude Publica 41: 104–110.
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Ellner JJ, 2011. Tuberculosis. Goldman L, Schafer AI, eds. Goldman's Cecil Medicine. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders, 1939–1948.
-
11.
Silva Junior GB, Libório AB, Mota RM, Abreu KL, Silva AE, Araújo SM, Daher EF, 2010. Acute kidney injury in AIDS: frequency, RIFLE classification and outcome. Braz J Med Biol Res 43: 1102–1108.
-
12.
Abbara A, Davidson RN, 2011. Etiology and management of genitourinary tuberculosis. Nat Rev Urol 8: 678–688.
-
13.
Cheade MF, Ivo ML, Siqueira PH, Sá RG, Honer MR, 2009. Characterization of tuberculosis among HIV/AIDS patients at a referral center in Mato Grosso do Sul. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 42: 119–125.
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14.
Nourse PJ, Cotton MF, Bates WD, 2010. Renal manifestations in children co-infected with HIV and disseminated tuberculosis. Pediatr Nephrol 25: 1759–1763.
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15.
Conte G, Iavarone M, Santorelli V, De Nicola L, 1997. Acute renal failure of unknown origin. Don't forget renal tuberculosis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 12: 1260–1261.
-
16.
Corigliano BE, Leedom JM, 1989. Renal tuberculosis. Massry SG, ed. Textbook of Nephrology. Second edition. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins, 687–691.
-
17.
Muttarak M, ChiangMai WN, Lojanapiwat B, 2005. Tuberculosis of the genitourinary tract: imaging features with pathological correlation. Singapore Med J 46: 568–574.
-
18.
Eastwood JB, Corbishley CM, Grange JM, 2001. Tuberculosis and the kidney. J Am Soc Nephrol 12: 1307–1314.
-
19.
Yarger WE, 1991. Urinary tract obstructive. Brenner BM, Rector FC, eds. The Kidney. Fourth edition. Saunders: Philadelphia/London: W.B. Saunders, 1768–1808.
-
20.
Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R, 2010. Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. 7th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Churchill Livingstone Elsevier; 2010.
-
21.
Daher E de F, Silva Júnior GB, Damasceno RT, Santos GM, Corsino GA, Silva SL, Gutiérrez-Adrianzén OA, 2007. End-stage renal disease due to delayed diagnosis of renal tuberculosis: a fatal case report. Braz J Infect Dis 11: 169–171.
-
22.
Figueiredo AA, Lucon AM, Arvellos AN, Ramos CO, Toledo AC, Falci R Jr, Gomes CM, Recaverren FE, Netto JM, Srougi M, 2010. A better understanding of urogenital tuberculosis pathophysiology based on radiological findings. Eur J Radiol 76: 246–257.
-
23.
Oliveira JL, Silva Junior GB, Daher EF, 2011. Tuberculosis-associated chronic kidney disease. Am J Trop Med Hyg 84: 843–844.
-
24.
Daher E de F, Silva Júnior GB, Pinheiro HC, Oliveira TR, Vilar M do L, Alcântara KJ, 2004. Erythema induratum of Bazin and renal tuberculosis: report of an association. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 46: 295–298.
-
25.
Mallinson WJ, Fuller RW, Levison DA, Baker LR, Cattell WR, 1981. Diffuse interstitial renal tuberculosis: an unusual cause of renal failure. Q J Med 50: 137–148.
-
26.
Chugh KS, 1981. Pattern of renal amyloidosis in Indian patients. Postgrad Med J 57: 31–35.
-
27.
Shribman JH, Eastwood JB, Uff JS, 1983. Immune-complex nephritis complicating miliary tuberculosis. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 287: 1593–1594.
-
28.
Eastwood JB, Zaidi M, Maxwell JD, Wing AJ, Pazianas M, 1994. Tuberculosis as primary renal diagnosis in end-stage uraemia. J Nephrol 7: 290–293.
-
29.
Lima NA, Vasconcelos CC, Filgueira PH, Kretzmann M, Sideaux TA, Feitosa Neto B, Silva Junior GB, Daher EF, 2012. Review of genitorurinary tuberculosis with focus on end-stage renal disease. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 54: 57–60.
-
30.
Dobler CC, McDonald SP, Marks GB, 2011. Risk of tuberculosis in dialysis patients: a nationwide cohort study. PLoS ONE 6: e29563.
-
31.
Richardson RM, 2012. The diagnosis of tuberculosis in dialysis patients. Semin Dial 25: 419–422.
-
32.
Siddiqi N, Sheikh I, 2012. Peritonitis caused by Mycobacterium abscesses in patients on continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Saudi J Kidney Dis Transpl 23: 321–324.
-
33.
Woeltje KF, Mathew A, Rothstein M, Seiler S, Fraser VJ, 1998. Tuberculosis infection and anergy in hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 31: 848–852.
-
34.
Cheng IK, Chan PC, Chan MK, 1989. Tuberculous peritonitis complicating long-term peritoneal dialysis. Am J Kidney Dis 9: 155–161.
-
35.
Singh N, Paterson DL, 1998. Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in solid-organ transplant recipients: impact and implications for management. Clin Infect Dis 27: 1266–1277.
-
36.
Waness A, Al Shohaib S, 2012. Tuberculous peritonitis associated with peritoneal dialysis. Saudi J Kidney Dis Transpl 23: 44–47.
-
37.
Gursu M, Tayfur F, Besler M, Kaptanogullari O, Kucuk M, Aydin Z, Basturk T, Uzun S, Karadag S, Tatli E, Sumnu A, Ozturk S, Kazancioglu R, 2011. Tuberculosis in peritoneal dialysis patients in an endemic region. Adv Perit Dial 27: 48–52.
-
38.
Ou SM, Liu CJ, Teng CJ, Lin YT, Chang YS, Chiang SC, Tzeng CH, Chen TJ, 2012. Impact of pulmonary and extrapulmonary tuberculosis infection in kidney transplantation: a nationwide population-based study in Taiwan. Transpl Infect Dis 14: 502–509.
-
39.
Jung JY, Joo DJ, Lee CH, Park MS, Kim YS, Kim MS, Kim SI, Kim YS, Kim SK, Chang J, Kang YA, 2012. Pre-transplant risk factors for tuberculosis after kidney transplant in an intermediate burden area. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 16: 248–254.
-
40.
Köseoglu F, Emiroglue R, Karakayali H, Bilgin N, Haberal M, 2001. Prevalence of mycobacterial infection in solid organ transplant recipients. Transplant Proc 33: 1782–1784.
-
41.
Dridi A, Kaaroud H, Boubaker K, Abdallah TB, El-Younsi F, Moussa FB, Hidri H, Abderrahim E, Khedher A, Ben Maiz H, 2003. Tuberculosis in renal transplant recipients. Transplant Proc 35: 2682–2683.
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42.
Basiri A, Moghaddam SM, Simforoosh N, Einollahi B, Hosseini M, Fiorouzan A, Pourrezagholi F, Nafar M, Zagar MA, Pourmand G, Tara A, Mombeni H, Moradi MR, Taghizadeh A, Gholamrezaee HR, Bohlouli A, Nezhadgashti H, Amirzadehpasha A, Ahmad E, Salehipour M, Yazdani M, Nasrrollahi A, Falaknazi K, Mahdavi MR, Shamsa A, Fiezzadeh B, Mojahedi MJ, Oghbaee N, Azad RE, Mohammadi Z, 2005. Preliminary report of a nationwide case-control study for identifying risk factors of tuberculosis following renal transplantation. Transplant Proc 37: 3041–3044.
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43.
Higgins RM, Cahn AP, Porter D, Richardson AJ, Mitchell RG, Hopkin JM, Morris PJ, 1991. Mycobacterial infections after renal transplantation. Q J Med 78: 145–153.
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44.
Rook GA, 1988. The role of vitamin D in tuberculosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 138: 768–770.
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45.
Felsenfeld AJ, Drezner MK, Llach F, 1986. Hypercalcaemia and elevated calcitriol in a maintenance dialysis patient with tuberculosis. Arch Intern Med 146: 1941–1945.
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46.
Golden MP, Vikram HR, 2005. Extrapulmonary tuberculosis: an overview. Am Fam Physician 72: 1761–1768.
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47.
Brown TJ, Power EG, French GL, 1999. Evaluation of three commercial detection systems for Mycobacterium tuberculosis where clinical diagnosis is difficult. J Clin Pathol 52: 193–197.
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48.
Piersimoni C, Scarparo C, Piccoli P, Rigon A, Ruggiero G, Nista D, Bornigia S, 2002. Performance assessment of two commercial amplification assays for direct detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex from respiratory and extrapulmonary specimens. J Clin Microbiol 40: 4138–4142.
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49.
Devallois A, Goh KS, Rastogi N, 1997. Rapid identification of mycobacteria to species level by PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of the hsp65 gene and proposition of an algorithm to differentiate 34 mycobacterial species. J Clin Microbiol 35: 2969–2973.
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50.
Parsons LM, Brosch R, Cole ST, Somoskovi A, Loder A, Bretzel G, Van Soolingen D, Hale YM, Salfinger M, 2002. Rapid and simple approach for identification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex isolates by PCR-based genomic deletion analysis. J Clin Microbiol 40: 2339–2345.
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Soo PC, Horng YT, Hsueh PR, Shen BJ, Wang JY, Tu HH, Wei JR, Hsieh SC, Huang CC, Lai HC, 2006. Direct and simultaneous identification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) and Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) by rapid multiplex nested PCR-ICT assay. J Microbiol Methods 66: 440–448.
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Renal Tuberculosis in the Modern Era
Elizabeth De Francesco Daher
Elizabeth De Francesco Daher
Department of Internal Medicine, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil; School of Medicine, Health Sciences Center, University of Fortaleza, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil; Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
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Geraldo Bezerra da Silva Junior
Geraldo Bezerra da Silva Junior
Department of Internal Medicine, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil; School of Medicine, Health Sciences Center, University of Fortaleza, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil; Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
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Elvino José Guardão Barros
Elvino José Guardão Barros
Department of Internal Medicine, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil; School of Medicine, Health Sciences Center, University of Fortaleza, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil; Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
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Tuberculosis (TB) is a disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The disease remains as an important public health problem in developing countries. Extrapulmonary TB became more common with the advent of infection with human immunodeficiency virus and by the increase in the number of organ transplantation, which also leads to immunosuppression of thousand of persons. Urogenital TB represents 27% of extrapulmonary cases. Renal involvement in TB can be part of a disseminated infection or a localized genitourinary disease. Renal involvement by TB infection is underdiagnosed in most health care centers. Most patients with renal TB have sterile pyuria, which can be accompanied by microscopic hematuria. The diagnosis of urinary tract TB is based on the finding of pyuria in the absence of common bacterial infection. The first choice drugs include isoniazide, rifampicin, pirazinamide, ethambutol, and streptomycin. Awareness of renal TB is urgently needed by physicians for suspecting this disease in patients with unexplained urinary tract abnormalities, mainly in those with any immunosuppression and those coming from TB-endemic areas.
Author Notes
Authors' addresses: Elizabeth De Francesco Daher, Department of Internal Medicine, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil, E-mail: ef.daher@uol.com.br. Geraldo Bezerra da Silva Junior, Department of Internal Medicine, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil, and School of Medicine, Health Sciences Center, University of Fortaleza, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil, E-mail: geraldobezerrajr@yahoo.com.br. Elvino José Guardão Barros, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, E-mail: elvino.barros@gmail.com.
- Introduction
- Immunosuppression and Tuberculosis
- Tuberculosis and HIV
- Tuberculosis-associated Obstructive Kidney Injury
- Pathophysiology of Kidney Injury in Tuberculosis
- Clinical Manifestations
- Cutaneous and Renal Tuberculosis
- Tuberculosis and Interstitial Nephritis
- Tuberculosis and Glomerulopathy
- Tuberculosis and Chronic Kidney Disease
- Tuberculosis and Dialysis
- Tuberculosis and Transplantation
- Differential Diagnosis
- Evaluation of Laboratory Diagnosis
- Treatment
- Invasive Procedures
- Final Considerations
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Brosch R, Gordon SV, Marmiesse M, Brodin P, Buchrieser C, Eiglmeier K, Garnier T, Gutierrez C, Hewinson G, Kremer K, Parsons LM, Pym AS, Samper S, van Sooliongen D, Cole ST, 2002. A new evolutionary scenario for the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99: 3684–3689.
-
2.
World Health Organization, 2009. Global Tuberculosis Control 2004: Epidemiology, Strategy, Financing. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2009.
-
3.
Rieder HL, Snider DE Jr, Cauthen GM, 1990. Extrapulmonary tuberculosis in the United States. Am Rev Respir Dis 141: 347–351.
-
4.
Kennedy DH, 1989. Extrapulmonary tuberculosis. In Ratledge C, Stanford JL, Grange JM, eds. The Biology of Mycobacteria. New York: Academic Press, 245–284.
-
5.
Jones BE, Young SM, Antoniskis D, Davidson PT, Kramer F, Barnes PF, 1993. Relationship of the manifestations of tuberculosis to CD4 cell counts in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Am Rev Respir Dis 148: 1292–1297.
-
6.
Matuck TA, Brasil P, Alvarenga MF, Morgado L, Rels MD, da Costa AC, Araújo M, Rodrigues ME, de Carvalho D de B, 2004. Tuberculosis in renal transplants in Rio de Janeiro. Transplant Proc 36: 905–906.
-
7.
Eastwood JB, Dilly SA, Grange JM, 1996. Tuberculosis, leprosy and other mycobacterial diseases. Cattell WR, ed. Infections of the Kidney and Urinary Tract. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 291–318.
-
8.
World Health Organization. Tuberculosis and HIV. Available at: http://www.who.int/hiv/topics/tb/en/. Accessed September 10, 2012.
-
9.
Jamal LF, Moherdaui F, 2007. Tuberculose e infecção pelo HIV no Brasil: magnitude do problema e estratégias para o controle. Rev Saude Publica 41: 104–110.
-
10.
Ellner JJ, 2011. Tuberculosis. Goldman L, Schafer AI, eds. Goldman's Cecil Medicine. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders, 1939–1948.
-
11.
Silva Junior GB, Libório AB, Mota RM, Abreu KL, Silva AE, Araújo SM, Daher EF, 2010. Acute kidney injury in AIDS: frequency, RIFLE classification and outcome. Braz J Med Biol Res 43: 1102–1108.
-
12.
Abbara A, Davidson RN, 2011. Etiology and management of genitourinary tuberculosis. Nat Rev Urol 8: 678–688.
-
13.
Cheade MF, Ivo ML, Siqueira PH, Sá RG, Honer MR, 2009. Characterization of tuberculosis among HIV/AIDS patients at a referral center in Mato Grosso do Sul. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 42: 119–125.
-
14.
Nourse PJ, Cotton MF, Bates WD, 2010. Renal manifestations in children co-infected with HIV and disseminated tuberculosis. Pediatr Nephrol 25: 1759–1763.
-
15.
Conte G, Iavarone M, Santorelli V, De Nicola L, 1997. Acute renal failure of unknown origin. Don't forget renal tuberculosis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 12: 1260–1261.
-
16.
Corigliano BE, Leedom JM, 1989. Renal tuberculosis. Massry SG, ed. Textbook of Nephrology. Second edition. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins, 687–691.
-
17.
Muttarak M, ChiangMai WN, Lojanapiwat B, 2005. Tuberculosis of the genitourinary tract: imaging features with pathological correlation. Singapore Med J 46: 568–574.
-
18.
Eastwood JB, Corbishley CM, Grange JM, 2001. Tuberculosis and the kidney. J Am Soc Nephrol 12: 1307–1314.
-
19.
Yarger WE, 1991. Urinary tract obstructive. Brenner BM, Rector FC, eds. The Kidney. Fourth edition. Saunders: Philadelphia/London: W.B. Saunders, 1768–1808.
-
20.
Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R, 2010. Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. 7th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Churchill Livingstone Elsevier; 2010.
-
21.
Daher E de F, Silva Júnior GB, Damasceno RT, Santos GM, Corsino GA, Silva SL, Gutiérrez-Adrianzén OA, 2007. End-stage renal disease due to delayed diagnosis of renal tuberculosis: a fatal case report. Braz J Infect Dis 11: 169–171.
-
22.
Figueiredo AA, Lucon AM, Arvellos AN, Ramos CO, Toledo AC, Falci R Jr, Gomes CM, Recaverren FE, Netto JM, Srougi M, 2010. A better understanding of urogenital tuberculosis pathophysiology based on radiological findings. Eur J Radiol 76: 246–257.
-
23.
Oliveira JL, Silva Junior GB, Daher EF, 2011. Tuberculosis-associated chronic kidney disease. Am J Trop Med Hyg 84: 843–844.
-
24.
Daher E de F, Silva Júnior GB, Pinheiro HC, Oliveira TR, Vilar M do L, Alcântara KJ, 2004. Erythema induratum of Bazin and renal tuberculosis: report of an association. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 46: 295–298.
-
25.
Mallinson WJ, Fuller RW, Levison DA, Baker LR, Cattell WR, 1981. Diffuse interstitial renal tuberculosis: an unusual cause of renal failure. Q J Med 50: 137–148.
-
26.
Chugh KS, 1981. Pattern of renal amyloidosis in Indian patients. Postgrad Med J 57: 31–35.
-
27.
Shribman JH, Eastwood JB, Uff JS, 1983. Immune-complex nephritis complicating miliary tuberculosis. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 287: 1593–1594.
-
28.
Eastwood JB, Zaidi M, Maxwell JD, Wing AJ, Pazianas M, 1994. Tuberculosis as primary renal diagnosis in end-stage uraemia. J Nephrol 7: 290–293.
-
29.
Lima NA, Vasconcelos CC, Filgueira PH, Kretzmann M, Sideaux TA, Feitosa Neto B, Silva Junior GB, Daher EF, 2012. Review of genitorurinary tuberculosis with focus on end-stage renal disease. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 54: 57–60.
-
30.
Dobler CC, McDonald SP, Marks GB, 2011. Risk of tuberculosis in dialysis patients: a nationwide cohort study. PLoS ONE 6: e29563.
-
31.
Richardson RM, 2012. The diagnosis of tuberculosis in dialysis patients. Semin Dial 25: 419–422.
-
32.
Siddiqi N, Sheikh I, 2012. Peritonitis caused by Mycobacterium abscesses in patients on continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Saudi J Kidney Dis Transpl 23: 321–324.
-
33.
Woeltje KF, Mathew A, Rothstein M, Seiler S, Fraser VJ, 1998. Tuberculosis infection and anergy in hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 31: 848–852.
-
34.
Cheng IK, Chan PC, Chan MK, 1989. Tuberculous peritonitis complicating long-term peritoneal dialysis. Am J Kidney Dis 9: 155–161.
-
35.
Singh N, Paterson DL, 1998. Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in solid-organ transplant recipients: impact and implications for management. Clin Infect Dis 27: 1266–1277.
-
36.
Waness A, Al Shohaib S, 2012. Tuberculous peritonitis associated with peritoneal dialysis. Saudi J Kidney Dis Transpl 23: 44–47.
-
37.
Gursu M, Tayfur F, Besler M, Kaptanogullari O, Kucuk M, Aydin Z, Basturk T, Uzun S, Karadag S, Tatli E, Sumnu A, Ozturk S, Kazancioglu R, 2011. Tuberculosis in peritoneal dialysis patients in an endemic region. Adv Perit Dial 27: 48–52.
-
38.
Ou SM, Liu CJ, Teng CJ, Lin YT, Chang YS, Chiang SC, Tzeng CH, Chen TJ, 2012. Impact of pulmonary and extrapulmonary tuberculosis infection in kidney transplantation: a nationwide population-based study in Taiwan. Transpl Infect Dis 14: 502–509.
-
39.
Jung JY, Joo DJ, Lee CH, Park MS, Kim YS, Kim MS, Kim SI, Kim YS, Kim SK, Chang J, Kang YA, 2012. Pre-transplant risk factors for tuberculosis after kidney transplant in an intermediate burden area. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 16: 248–254.
-
40.
Köseoglu F, Emiroglue R, Karakayali H, Bilgin N, Haberal M, 2001. Prevalence of mycobacterial infection in solid organ transplant recipients. Transplant Proc 33: 1782–1784.
-
41.
Dridi A, Kaaroud H, Boubaker K, Abdallah TB, El-Younsi F, Moussa FB, Hidri H, Abderrahim E, Khedher A, Ben Maiz H, 2003. Tuberculosis in renal transplant recipients. Transplant Proc 35: 2682–2683.
-
42.
Basiri A, Moghaddam SM, Simforoosh N, Einollahi B, Hosseini M, Fiorouzan A, Pourrezagholi F, Nafar M, Zagar MA, Pourmand G, Tara A, Mombeni H, Moradi MR, Taghizadeh A, Gholamrezaee HR, Bohlouli A, Nezhadgashti H, Amirzadehpasha A, Ahmad E, Salehipour M, Yazdani M, Nasrrollahi A, Falaknazi K, Mahdavi MR, Shamsa A, Fiezzadeh B, Mojahedi MJ, Oghbaee N, Azad RE, Mohammadi Z, 2005. Preliminary report of a nationwide case-control study for identifying risk factors of tuberculosis following renal transplantation. Transplant Proc 37: 3041–3044.
-
43.
Higgins RM, Cahn AP, Porter D, Richardson AJ, Mitchell RG, Hopkin JM, Morris PJ, 1991. Mycobacterial infections after renal transplantation. Q J Med 78: 145–153.
-
44.
Rook GA, 1988. The role of vitamin D in tuberculosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 138: 768–770.
-
45.
Felsenfeld AJ, Drezner MK, Llach F, 1986. Hypercalcaemia and elevated calcitriol in a maintenance dialysis patient with tuberculosis. Arch Intern Med 146: 1941–1945.
-
46.
Golden MP, Vikram HR, 2005. Extrapulmonary tuberculosis: an overview. Am Fam Physician 72: 1761–1768.
-
47.
Brown TJ, Power EG, French GL, 1999. Evaluation of three commercial detection systems for Mycobacterium tuberculosis where clinical diagnosis is difficult. J Clin Pathol 52: 193–197.
-
48.
Piersimoni C, Scarparo C, Piccoli P, Rigon A, Ruggiero G, Nista D, Bornigia S, 2002. Performance assessment of two commercial amplification assays for direct detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex from respiratory and extrapulmonary specimens. J Clin Microbiol 40: 4138–4142.
-
49.
Devallois A, Goh KS, Rastogi N, 1997. Rapid identification of mycobacteria to species level by PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of the hsp65 gene and proposition of an algorithm to differentiate 34 mycobacterial species. J Clin Microbiol 35: 2969–2973.
-
50.
Parsons LM, Brosch R, Cole ST, Somoskovi A, Loder A, Bretzel G, Van Soolingen D, Hale YM, Salfinger M, 2002. Rapid and simple approach for identification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex isolates by PCR-based genomic deletion analysis. J Clin Microbiol 40: 2339–2345.
-
51.
Soo PC, Horng YT, Hsueh PR, Shen BJ, Wang JY, Tu HH, Wei JR, Hsieh SC, Huang CC, Lai HC, 2006. Direct and simultaneous identification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) and Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) by rapid multiplex nested PCR-ICT assay. J Microbiol Methods 66: 440–448.
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