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Abolition of monarchy

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The abolition of monarchy is a legislative or revolutionary movement to abolish monarchical elements in government, usually hereditary. The abolition of an absolute monarchy in favour of limited government under a constitutional monarchy is a less radical form of anti-monarchism that has succeeded in some nations that still retain monarchs, such as Sweden, Spain, and Thailand.

Abolition has been carried out in various ways, including via abdication leading to the extinction of the monarchy, legislative reform, revolution, coup d'état, and decolonisation. Abolition became more frequent in the 20th century, with the number of monarchies in Europe falling from 22 to 12 between 1914 and 2015, and the number of republics rising from 4 to 34. Decolonisation and independence have resulted in an abolition of monarchies in a number of former colonies such as those created by the United Kingdom.

Motivations for abolition include egalitarianism and anti-class views, eliminating a rival system potentially opposed to another incoming system (as had occurred in Romania in 1947), opposition to undemocratic and hereditary institutions, perception of monarchy as anachronistic or outdated, and opposition to a particular monarch or dynasty.[1][2] In many colonies and former colonies, abolishing the influence of the monarchy of a colonising state is considered part of decolonisation. In many Commonwealth realms, the monarchy may be viewed as a foreign institution running counter to the national identity or national sovereignty.

In the 21st century, some countries that are monarchies have significant republican movements, such as Spain[3] and Australia.[4] Since the beginning of the 20th century, restorations of monarchies have been comparatively rare. Examples are the monarchy of Spain, which since 1947 had been nominally a regency with a vacant throne but the Bourbon dynasty was restored in 1975; the reinstatement in 1991 of the Emir of Kuwait following abolition in 1990 and the Gulf War; and a 1993 transition of Cambodia from a Marxist-Leninist republic to an elective monarchy.

Ancient world

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Classical Athens

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Further information: Classical Athens

The city-state of Athens was ruled by monarchs in a period before the establishment of Athenian Democracy. Most of this is either mythical or semi-historical. The Athenian monarchy was abolished and replaced with lifetime archons around 1068 BC, whose power was reduced over many years.[5]

Roman Kingdom/Republic

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The Roman Republic was established after the overthrow of the seventh king of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, in 509 BC, after his disrespect for Roman customs and the Senate as well as his use of violence to control Rome.[6]

Civil War and English Republic

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Under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell, in 1649, King Charles I was tried for high treason, convicted and executed. This marked the conclusion of the English Civil War which resulted in the Parliament of England overthrowing the English monarchy, and initiating a period of an English republic (known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms). After eleven years, in 1660, a limited monarchy was restored but moderated by an independent Parliament.[7][8]

In the Kingdom of England, the Glorious Revolution of 1688 furthered the constitutional monarchy, restricted by laws such as the Bill of Rights 1689 and the Act of Settlement 1701. At the same time, in Scotland, the Convention of Estates enacted the Claim of Right Act 1689, which placed similar limits on the Scottish monarchy.

Atlantic and French Revolutions

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Main article: Atlantic Revolutions

American

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Main articles: American Revolution and History of the United States
Further information: American Revolutionary War, Patriot (American Revolution), and United States Declaration of Independence
 
The Spirit of '76, originally titled Yankee Doodle, painted by Archibald Willard in 1875, is an iconic image representing the patriotic sentiment surrounding the American Revolutionary War.

Organized anti-monarchism in what is now the United States developed out of a gradual revolution that began in 1765, as colonists resisted a stamp tax through boycott and condemnation of tax officials.[9] While they were subject to the authority of the Parliament of Great Britain (as the monarchy was a limited monarchy since 1660), the North American citizens increasingly clashed with the Parliament that did not provide seats for parliamentary representatives from North America. With the Declaration of Independence in 1776, anti-monarchical propaganda resulted in violent protests that systematically removed symbols of monarchy. For instance, an equestrian statue of George III in New York City was toppled. Parliamentary loyalists were particularly affected by partisan attacks, with tens of thousands leaving for British Canada.[10] Property that remained was confiscated by each of thirteen newly created States through newly passed laws.[11] Artifacts from the colonial period depicting the British monarchy are seldom found in the United States. However, not all sentiment equated to anti-monarchism. A normality of a monarchy at the head of a polity remained, that some Americans saw a presidency in monarchical terms, a Caesar of the republic, was an early debate in the new republic.[12]

French

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Main articles: French First Republic and French Revolution
Further information: French Revolutionary Wars, Proclamation of the abolition of the monarchy, Revolutions of 1830, and Revolutions of 1848
 
Liberty Leading the People, painted by Eugène Delacroix in 1830, featuring a depiction of the modern French national personification Marianne.

One of the most significant abolitions of monarchy in history—along with the Dutch Republic of 1581–1795—involved the Ancien Régime in 1792 during the French Revolution.[13] The French monarchy was later restored several times with differing levels of authority. Napoleon, initially a hero of the Republican revolution, crowned himself emperor in 1804, only to be replaced by the Bourbon Restoration in 1815, which in turn was replaced by the more liberal July Monarchy in 1830.

The 1848 Revolution was a clearer anti-monarchic uprising that replaced the succession of royal leaders with the short-lived Second French Republic. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte established the Second French Empire (1852–1870), retaining republican aspects while placing himself in the center of the state until the losses in the Franco-Prussian War led to his fall, resulting in the French Third Republic and the definitive end of the monarchy in France. Monarchism, which had held a majority in the National Assembly after the 1871 election, slowly fizzled out over the course of the rest of the century.[14]

Haitian

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Main article: Haitian Revolution

19th century

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Africa

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Madagascar

The monarchy of Madagascar, known as the Merina Kingdom, came to an end in 1897 when France made it a colony and overthrew Queen Ranavalona III.

Zimbabwe

In 1629, the Mwenemutapa attempted to throw out the Portuguese. He failed and in turn he himself was overthrown, leading to the Portuguese installation of Mavura Mhande Felipe on the throne. In 1917, Mambo Chioko, the last king of the dynasty, was killed in battle against the Portuguese.

Americas

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Mexico

The First Mexican Empire existed from the September 1821 Declaration of Independence until the emperor's abdication in March 1823. The Provisional Government took power and the First Mexican Republic was proclaimed in 1824. Due to French intervention under Napoleon III, the Second Mexican Empire lasted from 1864 to 1867, when it collapsed and its Emperor, Maximilian I of Mexico, was executed.

Brazil

In Brazil, the monarchy was formally established in 1815 through the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves (of which the Kingdom of Brazil was a constituent state), it evolved into the Empire of Brazil in 1822, and was abolished in 1889, when Emperor Pedro II was overthrown by a republican military coup (the status of the republic was confirmed by a plebiscite in 1993 that resulted in 86% of the votes to the republican government).

Asia

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Burma

The monarchy of Burma was abolished in 1885 when the last king, Thibaw Min, lost his throne and the country was annexed by Britain.

South Asia

In 1858 the Mughal Empire came to an end after losing a war against Britain, and its Emperor, Bahadur Shah II, lost his throne.

Europe

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Italy

Between 1859 and 1861, four monarchies in Southern Europe ceased to exist (Parma, Modena, Tuscany and the Two Sicilies) when they all became part of the new Kingdom of Italy.

Spain

In Spain monarchy was abolished from 1873 to 1874 by the First Spanish Republic, but then restored until 1931.

Pacific

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Hawaii

In 1893 foreign business leaders overthrew Queen Liliʻuokalani of the Kingdom of Hawaii. They established a republic, which was annexed by the United States in 1898.

Tahiti

The monarchy of Tahiti came to an end in 1880 when France made it a colony and overthrew King Pōmare V.

Manu'a

After ceding sovereignty of the Manu'a islands of modern-day American Samoa to the United States in 1904, the last King of Manu'a, Tui Manu'a Elisara, died on 2 July 1909. All attempts to revive the position since his death have been met with opposition by the United States Government.[15]

20th century

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Nationalism

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China

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The monarchy of China ceased to exist in 1912 when the Xinhai Revolution led by Sun Yat-sen succeeded in overthrowing the young Xuantong Emperor; this marked the end of the Qing dynasty and the start of the Republic of China. In 1915, Yuan Shikai briefly proclaimed the Empire of China with himself as the emperor; the regime failed to gain legitimacy and collapsed three months later. In 1917, the Qing loyalist Zhang Xun sought to revive the Qing dynasty and briefly reinstalled the Xuantong Emperor to the Chinese throne; this attempt is known as the "Manchu Restoration" in historiography. The monarchy in parts of China was restored through the Japanese-sponsored client state known as Manchukuo with the former Qing emperor as its leader until the final abolition in 1945.

The area of Tibet was ruled by the Ganden Phodrang government which continued through the annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China until the Tibetan rebellion in 1959 where the monarchy in Tibet was dissolved although it continued in exile as the Central Tibetan Administration in India.

During the Xinhai Revolution, Outer Mongolia declared independence from the Qing dynasty of China in the Mongolian Revolution of 1911. The Bogd Khanate of Mongolia was subsequently proclaimed, although the Republic of China laid claims to Outer Mongolia and was widely recognized by the international community as having sovereignty over it. In 1924, the Mongolian People's Republic was established, bringing an end to the monarchy in Mongolia.

World War I and aftermath

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Russian Empire

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World War I led to perhaps the greatest number of abolition of monarchies in history. The conditions inside the Russian Empire and the poor performance in the war gave rise to a revolution which toppled the entire institution of the monarchy, followed by a second revolution against that government in October of the same year that executed Tsar (Imperator (Императоръ)) Nicholas II and implemented a Marxist-Leninist government. The Russian Civil War saw various monarchist, Republican, anarchist, nationalist and socialist factions fight each other with bourgeois independence movements winning in the Baltic States, Poland and Finland and the Bolsheviks winning everywhere else.

Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, Montenegro

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The defeated German, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires saw the abolition of their monarchies in the close aftermath of the war, ending the reigns of Wilhelm II, Charles I and Mehmed VI respectively. The monarchs of the constituent states within the German Empire, most importantly Ludwig III of Bavaria, Frederick Augustus III of Saxony and Wilhelm II of Württemberg, soon abdicated. During the war, monarchies were planned for Poland (Kingdom of Poland), the Grand Duchy of Finland (to have a Finnish King), and Lithuania (Mindaugas II of Lithuania), with a protectorate-like suzerainty exercised by the German Empire. Both intended kings renounced their thrones after Germany's defeat in November 1918. King Nicholas I of Montenegro lost his throne when the country became a part of Yugoslavia in 1918.

World War II and aftermath

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Italy, Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, Yugoslavia, Croatia

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World War II saw another increased number of abolition of monarchies. In 1922, Benito Mussolini's March on Rome led to King Victor Emmanuel III appointing Mussolini Prime Minister. In 1939 Italy invaded Albania and removed the reigning self-proclaimed King Zog and instated their own King Victor Emmanuel III as its new monarch. Italy, along with the eastern European monarchies of Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania were forced to join with Germany by their dictators in World War II against the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, the Western allies and the Soviet Union. When Yugoslavia fell in 1941 the Independent State of Croatia was established under a nominal monarchy, but it was in fact a one party state under Ante Pavelić and a puppet state of Nazi Germany. With the fall of Mussolini in July 1943, the monarchy in Croatia was abolished. As the Axis powers were defeated in the war, communist partisans in occupied Yugoslavia and occupied Albania seized power and ended the monarchies. Communists in Bulgaria, Hungary, and Romania removed their monarchies with strong backing by the Soviet Union, which had many troops and supporters placed there during the course of the war. Through this, Peter II of Yugoslavia, Simeon II of Bulgaria and Michael I of Romania all lost their thrones. King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy had remained King after the Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy but transferred most of his powers to his son after the Armistice of Cassibile. After Victor Emmanuel abdicated to save the monarchy, a narrow referendum in 1946 ended the short reign of his son King Umberto II and the Italian monarchy ceased to exist.

Republicanism

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Australia (monarchy kept after referendum)

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In a 1999 referendum, the voters of Australia rejected a proposal to replace the constitutional monarchy with a republic with a president appointed by Parliament. The proposal was rejected in all states, with only the Australian Capital Territory voting in favour. Though polling consistently showed a majority in favour of a republic, the result of the referendum was attributed to a split among republicans between those who supported the presented model and those who supported a directly elected president.[16][17][18][19]

Greece

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In the modern history of Greece, the monarchy was toppled in 1924, as a result of the National Schism and the Asia Minor Disaster. The resulting Second Hellenic Republic led a troubled existence, until a coup restored the monarchy in 1935. The subsequent dictatorial 4th of August Regime was established with the support of King George II of Greece, further delegitimizing the monarchy.

During the Axis occupation of Greece, George II nominally led the Greek government in exile, but the post-war fate of the monarchy was a major dividing issue for Greeks, especially with the rise of the pro-communist National Liberation Front (EAM) as the country's largest resistance movement. As a compromise, the issue was to be determined by a referendum after the war. In the end, the threat of a post-war communist takeover led the Venizelist republicans to ally with the monarchists; with the defeat of EAM in the Dekemvriana, the subsequent White Terror, and the outbreak of the Greek Civil War in 1946 resulted in a monarchist victory in the 1946 referendum and the return of George II to the country.

The last king, Constantine II, interfered in politics during the Apostasia of 1965. The resulting political crisis led to a military coup in April 1967. Constantine II reluctantly accepted the fait accompli and lent it legitimacy, but when he tried to stage a counter-coup later that year, he was defeated and forced into exile. Greece formally remained a monarchy until it was abolished by the military junta in June 1973, followed by a July referendum confirming that decision. The restoration of the monarchy was overwhelmingly defeated, after constitutional legality was restored, by a free referendum in 1974.

Spain

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In Spain, the monarchy was again abolished in 1931 by the Second Spanish Republic (1931–1939). In 1947, Francisco Franco declared Spain a monarchy but kept himself as regent for life with the constitutional setup essentially unchanged. Per the right the 1947 law granted him to decide who would be the future Spanish monarch, he appointed Juan Carlos of Bourbon his successor in 1969. The "Prince of Spain" became king at Franco's death in 1975, and during the Spanish transition to democracy, the Spanish constitution of 1978 put the monarchy on a new constitutional basis. The existence of monarchy in Spain is an entrenched clause with much stricter rules for constitutional amendment than other constitutional provisions.[20]

Portugal

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The monarchy of Portugal was also overthrown in 1910, two years after the assassination of King Carlos I, ending the reign of Manuel II, who died in exile in England in 1932 without issue.

Communism, socialism, and Islamism

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Afghanistan

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In 1973, the monarchy of King Mohammed Zahir Shah of Afghanistan was abolished after a socialist-supported coup d'état led by Mohammad Daoud Khan, from the same Musahiban royal family, who declared himself the first President of Afghanistan.

Ethiopia

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Emperor Haile Selassie I was overthrown in 1974 as a result of the Ethiopian Revolution, ending almost three millennia of monarchical rule in Ethiopia.

Indochina

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In 1945, during the August Revolution, Bảo Đại abdicated under the pressure of the Việt Minh led by Ho Chi Minh. This marked the end of the Nguyễn dynasty and the Vietnamese monarchy. From 1949 to 1955, Bảo Đại served as the Quốc Trưởng (lit. "Chief of State") of the State of Vietnam and did not receive the title of Hoàng Đế (lit. "Emperor").

Political upheaval and Communist insurrection put an end to the monarchies of Indochina after World War II: a short-lived attempt to leave a monarchical form of government in post-colonial South Vietnam came to naught in a fraudulent 1955 referendum, a military coup overthrew the kingless monarchy in Cambodia in 1970 and a Communist takeover ended the monarchy in Laos in 1975. Cambodia's monarchy later saw an unexpected rebirth under an internationally mediated peace settlement with former king Norodom Sihanouk being restored as a figurehead in 1993.

Iran

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The Pahlavi dynasty's rule in Iran ended following the Iranian Revolution of 1979 overthrowing Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and leading to the establishment of an Islamic republic.

Dictatorship

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Arab countries

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In some Arab countries, coups d'état replaced monarchies with military dictatorships.

The monarchy of Egypt was abolished in 1953, a year after the military overthrow of King Farouk, which caused him to abdicate in favour of his infant son Fuad II. The monarchy of Iraq ended in 1958 when King Faisal II was killed and a republic proclaimed. The monarchy of Yemen was abolished in 1962 when King Muhammad al-Badr was overthrown in a coup, although he continued to resist his opponents until 1970. King Idris of Libya was overthrown by a military coup led by Muammar Gaddafi in 1969.

Imperialism expansion and decolonisation

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Commonwealth of Nations

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Many monarchies were abolished in the middle of the 20th century or later as part of the process of decolonization. This included several Commonwealth realms, which were sovereign states in personal union with the monarchy of the United Kingdom.

The monarchy of Ireland was not abolished following the Irish war of independence in the 1920s. The Irish Free State was created as a separate state from the United Kingdom; it was nominally a monarchy but transitioned towards a more republican form of government throughout its existence. The Irish Constitution that came into force in 1937 left the question of Republic or monarchy vague, but established a President of Ireland, an office usually absent in monarchies. The monarchy was officially abolished by the Republic of Ireland Act of 1948, which came into force in 1949.

The monarchies of India, Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya, Tanganyika, Uganda, Guyana, and Malawi were abolished shortly after they became independent of the United Kingdom, whilst remaining within the Commonwealth. Others waited longer before abolishing their monarchies, such as Pakistan, South Africa, The Gambia, Sierra Leone, Malta, Trinidad and Tobago, and Mauritius. The latest country to become a republic within the Commonwealth was Barbados in 2021.

With the exceptions of Ireland and India, in each case the deposed monarch was Elizabeth II. Most realms which abolished their monarchy did so by declaring a new constitution or amending it to remove references to the Crown, with the exception of Fiji, whose monarchy was abolished in 1987 following a series of coups d'état.

Korea

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In 1910 the last emperor of Korea, Sunjong, lost his throne when the country was annexed by Japan. However, the Korean royal family was mediatized as a puppet family within the Japanese imperial family. Many of the Korean royals were forcibly re-educated in Japan and forced to marry Japanese royalty and aristocrats to meld the ruling families of the two empires. With the abolition of the Japanese aristocracy and cadet branches of the imperial family, the Korean royals officially lost their remaining status.[citation needed]

South Asia

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The independence of India from the United Kingdom in 1947 posed a unique problem. From 1858, when the British government replaced Company rule with direct Crown rule, it had been governed as a quasi-federation, with much of the country under the direct rule of the British monarch, who was styled as the Emperor of India. The remainder of the country, however, was under a form of indirect rule under him through its division into over 500 subnational monarchies, known as princely states; each was ruled by a prince who acknowledged the suzerainty of the Indian Emperor. The princely states ranged from powerful and largely independent principalities such as Hyderabad or Mysore, with a high level of autonomy, to tiny fiefdoms a few dozen acres (in the low tens of hectares) in size.

In 1947, it was agreed that India would be partitioned into the independent British dominions of India and Pakistan, with the princely states acceding to one nation or the other. The accession process proceeded smoothly, with the notable exception of four of the most influential principalities. The Muslim ruler of the Hindu-majority state of Junagadh acceded to Pakistan, but his decision was overruled by the Indian government, while Hyderabad chose to be independent, but was forcibly annexed to India in 1948. The Hindu ruler of Jammu and Kashmir, among the largest and most powerful of the principalities, but with a Muslim-majority population, initially held off on a decision. In the autumn of 1947, an invading force from Pakistan frightened the ruler into acceding to India. The ruler of Kalat, in Baluchistan, declared his independence in 1947, after which the state was forcibly merged with Pakistan, resulting in an insurgency persisting to this day. With the promulgation of the Indian constitution in 1950, India abolished its monarchy under the British crown and became a Republic within the Commonwealth of Nations, followed by Pakistan in 1956; as a result of both developments, the majority of the princes formally lost their sovereign rights. A few remaining principalities in Pakistan retained their autonomy until 1969 when they finally acceded to Pakistan. The Indian government formally derecognized its princely families in 1971, followed by Pakistan in 1972.

Finally, in 1975, King Palden Thondup Namgyal of Sikkim lost his throne when the country became a state of India following a referendum.

New monarchies

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The 20th century also saw the formation of a number of new monarchies that still exist to this day such as Bhutan (1907), Jordan (1921), Saudi Arabia (1932), and Malaysia (1957).

21st century

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The Kingdom of Nepal was transformed into a republic by the 1st Nepalese Constituent Assembly in 2008.[21][22] Barbados abolished its monarchy and became a republic on 30 November 2021 following a constitutional amendment by the Parliament.[23]

In addition, protests in support of a republican form of government took place in Malaysia in 2012,[24] and Cambodia the following year.[25] In 2013, an alleged coup plot by Al Islah to overthrow the monarchy of the United Arab Emirates and establish an Islamic republic failed.[26] Following the accession of Charles III in 2022, anti-monarchy protests also occurred in the United Kingdom; some protesters were arrested, but were later released without further action being taken.[27][28]

Monarchism in former monarchies

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In a referendum in Brazil in 1993, voters rejected an attempt to restore the country's monarchy. Unsuccessful efforts to restore the monarchies of some of the Balkan states in the former Eastern Bloc continue. Former King Michael of Romania and Prince Alexander of Serbia had been allowed to return, gained some popularity, played largely apolitical public roles, but never came close to being restored to their ancestral thrones. However, in Bulgaria, Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, who was deposed from the Bulgarian throne in 1946, was elected and served as the Prime Minister of his country from 2001 to 2005. The only formerly communist country to have held a referendum on the monarchy was Albania, where the claimant to his father's throne, the self-styled Leka I, lost by a two-thirds majority.

Summary table since the 20th century

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Country Last monarch Year Notes
1900s
Songhai Askia Malla 1901 Abolished by the French and incorporated into French West Africa.
  Rimatara Tamaeva V Abolished by the French and incorporated into the Establishments in Oceania.
  Nuku Hiva Laurent Piukeke Taupotini
Gumma Firisa 1902 Annexed by the Ethiopian Empire.
  Aceh Alauddin Muhammad Da'ud Syah II 1903 Aceh War
  Dahomey Agoli-agbo 1904 Incorporation into French Dahomey.
Oyo Adeyemi I Alowolodu 1905 Last monarch died; the realm was incorporated into the British Southern Nigeria Protectorate.
Habr Yunis Nur Ahmed Aman 1907 Incorporation into British Somaliland.
  Bali Dewa Agung Jambe II 1908 Incorporation into Dutch East Indies.
  Mwali 1909 Incorporation into the French Comoros.
1910s
  Portugal Manuel II 1910 Republican coup d'état
  Korea Sunjong Native monarchy abolished; replaced by Japanese rule through 1945.
Angoche Incorporation into Portugal.
Nri Eze Nri Òbalíke 1911 Abolished by the British and incorporated into Southern Nigeria Protectorate.
Kasanje Incorporation into Portuguese West Africa.
  Riau-Lingga Abdul Rahman II Abolished by the Dutch.
  China Xuantong 1912 Xinhai Revolution – Emperor ousted by warlords and republicans. (Briefly restored in 1917)
Wadai Dud Murra of Wadai French annexation of Wadai Empire.
Ndzuwani Saidi Mohamed bin Saidi Omar Incorporation into the French Comoros.
  Samos Grigorios Vegleris Incorporation into Greece.
  Kongo Manuel III of Kongo 1914 Position abolished by Portuguese after an unsuccessful revolt.
Mbunda Mwene Mbandu Kapova I of Mbunda
  Sultanate of Sulu Sultan Jamalul-Kiram II 1915 Split into American Insular Government over the Philippine islands, British North Borneo and the Dutch East Indies.
  Darfur Ali Dinar 1916 Re-incorporation into Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.
  China Hongxian Monarchy dropped, shortly after the outbreak of the National Protection War.
  Russia Nicholas II 1917 Russian Revolution
  Finland Finnish Declaration of Independence
  Montenegro Nicholas I 1918 Referendum uniting Montenegro with Serbia.
  Germany Wilhelm II All on account of German defeat in World War I and the following German Revolution.
  Prussia
  Bavaria Ludwig III
  Württemberg William II
  Saxony Frederick Augustus III
  Hesse Ernest Louis
  Baden Frederick II
  Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach William Ernest
  Mecklenburg-Schwerin Frederick Francis IV
  Mecklenburg-Strelitz Adolphus Frederick VI
  Oldenburg Frederick Augustus II
  Brunswick Ernst Augustus
  Anhalt Joachim Ernst
  Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Charles Edward
  Saxe-Meiningen Bernhard III
  Saxe-Altenburg Ernst II
  Waldeck-Pyrmont Friedrich
  Lippe Leopold IV
  Schaumburg-Lippe Adolf II
  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt Günther Victor
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen
  Reuss Elder Line Heinrich XXIV
  Reuss Younger Line Heinrich XXVII
  Austria Charles I Charles I "renounced participation" in state affairs, but did not abdicate. Monarchy officially abolished by the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, on 10 September 1919.
  Hungary Monarchy restored in 1920, although the throne remained vacant with a regent.
  Finland Frederick Charles I Monarchy never in effect.
  Lithuania Mindaugas II
  Poland Vacant (ruled by Regency Council)
  United Baltic Duchy Duke Adolf Friedrich of Mecklenburg
  Courland and Semigallia Vacant
  Serbia Peter I Throne transferred to the newly created Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, then Kingdom of Yugoslavia.
  Ukraine Pavlo Skoropadskyi Removed from power, following an uprising led by Symon Petliura and the withdrawal of German forces from Kyiv.
1920s
  Bukhara (Uzbekistan) Mohammed Alim Khan 1920 Monarchy deposed by an invasion by the Red Army (Bukhara operation).
  Khiva (Uzbekistan) Abdallah Khan of Khiva Monarchy deposed by a communist uprising aided by the Red Army (Khivan Revolution).
  North Caucasian Emirate Uzun Hajji Saltinsky Abolished by the Bolsheviks.
  Syria Faisal I Monarchy deposed following the Siege of Damascus.
  Upper Asir Al-Hasan Bin Ayad Incorporation into Nejd.
  Jabal Shammar Muhammad bin Talal Al Rashid 1921
  Ottoman Empire Mehmed VI 1922 Sultanate abolished in 1922.
  Wituland Fumo 'Umar ibn Ahmad 1923 Sultanate abolished by the British and incorporated into the Kenya Colony.
  Greece George II 1924 Restored 1935 and later abolished again in 1973 (see below).
  Mongolia Bogd Khan Communist People's Republic proclaimed after the Bogd Khan's death.
  Albania William I 1925 Monarchy restored in 1928 (Albanian Kingdom).
Mohammerah Khaz'al al-Ka'bi Sheikhdom abolished by Persia.
  Hejaz Ali bin Hussein, King of Hejaz Conquered by the Nejd.
  Kurdistan Mahmud Barzanji Kingdom of Kurdistan reconquered by the British.
Orungu Rogombé-Nwèntchandi 1927 Abolished by the French and incorporated into French Equatorial Africa.
  Hobyo Ali Yusuf Kenadid Incorporation into Italian Somaliland.
  Afghanistan Habibullāh Kalakāni 1929 After the fall of Kalakani on 13 October 1929, the Emirate ended, and was replaced by the revived Kingdom of Afghanistan.
1930s
Baidah 1930 Incorporation into the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen.
  Asir Sayyid al-Hasan ibn Ali al-Idrisi al-Hasani Incorporation into Saudi Arabia.
Kumul Maqsud Shah Upon Maqsud Shah's death in March 1930 Jin Shuren replaced the Khanate with three normal provincial administrative districts Hami, Yihe, and Yiwu. This set off the Kumul Rebellion, in which Yulbars Khan attempted to restore the heir Nasir to the throne.
  Spain Alfonso XIII 1931 Later restored (see below).
Jimma Abba Jofir 1932 Deposed and incorporated into the Ethiopian Empire.
  Najran Ali II ibn Muhsin ibn Husayn 1934 Incorporation into Saudi Arabia.
  Albania Zog I 1939 Throne usurped by Victor Emmanuel III, after Italian invasion.
1940s
  Greece George II 1941 The end of the monarchy was announced by Georgios Tsolakoglou after taking over as prime minister of the Hellenic State, which was collaborating with the Third Reich and not recognized by the Allies.
  Albania Victor Emmanuel III 1943 Relinquished throne after Italian armistice in 1943.
  Croatia Tomislav II Abdicated after withdrawal of Italian support in 1943.
  Iceland Christian X 1944 Referendum; official result: 99.5% in favour of termination of personal union with Denmark, 98.5% in favour of new republican constitution.
  Montenegro Vacant (ruled by a governor) Monarchy abolished after takeover by Yugoslav Partisans
  Yugoslavia Peter II 1945 Monarchy abolished by the Communist regime of Josip Broz Tito
  Manchukuo Kangde Monarchy abolished after the surrender of Japan. Territories returned to the Republic of China.
  Gowa Muhammad Tahur Muhibuddin Sultanate abolished.
  Vietnam Bảo Đại Monarchy abolished after the surrender of Japan.
  Gypsy Janos I The king abdicated and no successor was elected.
  Hungary Miklós Horthy as Regent 1946 Decision of the parliament without a referendum.
  Italy Umberto II Referendum; official result: 54.3% in favour of republic.
  Bulgaria Simeon II Referendum; official result: 95% in favour of republic. Tsar Simeon II was exiled by the Communist Fatherland Front regime. Simeon later served as Prime Minister of Bulgaria from 2001 to 2005.
  Sarawak Charles Vyner Brooke White Rajahs ceded Sarawak to the British Crown, which created the Colony of Sarawak
  Deli Amaluddin Al Sani Perkasa Alamsyah Acts of violence against the nobility reached their peak during the bloody incident known as the Social Revolution in 1946. Many kings and members of royal families in North Sumatra were murdered and robbed of property and belongings, including Tengku Amir Hamzah, the Indonesian poet who was beheaded in Kuala Begumit. The family of the Sultanate of Deli and Serdang survived thanks to the protection of the Allied soldiers who were there to accept the surrender of the Japanese.
  Asahan Shaibun Abdul Jalil Rahmad Shah
  Langkat Mahmud Abdul Jalil Rahmad Shah
  Serdang Sulaiman Syariful Alam Shah
Princely States 1947–1974 Political integration of India
  Romania Michael I 1947 Forced to abdicate and exiled by the Communists.
  Ireland George VI 1949 Abolished the last "monarchy of Ireland" under the terms of the Republic of Ireland Act 1948 as from 18 April 1949, which also saw Ireland become a republic outside the British Commonwealth. Ten days later, the London Declaration was enacted to allow republics and native monarchies to become members of the newly renamed Commonwealth of Nations.
  Mangkunegaran Mangkunegara VII Integration with Indonesia.
  Siak Kasim Abdul Jalil Syaifudin I The Sultan also handed over his property for the struggle of independence of the Republic of Indonesia.
  Surakarta Sunanate Pakubuwono XII During the Indonesian National Revolution, the Surakarta Sunanate and Mangkunegaran Princedom sent a letter of confidence to Sukarno to demonstrate their support for the newly declared Republic of Indonesia. They were subsequently awarded the status of Daerah Istimewa (Special Region, similar to today's Yogyakarta Sultanate) within the Indonesian state. However, because of political agitation and opposition from Indonesian communists that led to an anti-monarchy movement and rebellion in early 1946, both monarchies had their Special Region status revoked and were then merged into the province of Central Java.
1950s
  Pontianak Syarif Hamid II of Pontianak 1950 Integration with Indonesia.
  Kotawaringin
  India George VI Abolished its monarchy after adopting a new republican constitution. India became the first republic in the Commonwealth of Nations.
  Jaisalmer Giridhar Singh Bhati Merged with the Republic of India.
  Mysore Jayachamaraja Wodeyar
  Tibet Tenzin Gyatso 1951 Annexed by the People's Republic of China.
  Egypt Fuad II 1953 Republic proclaimed the year after the 1952 Egyptian revolution.
  Pakistan Elizabeth II 1956 Abolished its monarchy after adopting a new republican constitution.
  Tunisia Muhammad VIII 1957 Ordered by parliament.
  Ashanti Prempeh II 1957 Entered into state union with Ghana after independence from the United Kingdom.
  Iraq Faisal II 1958 coup d'état
  Bima Muhammad Salahuddin In 1958, the Sumbawan principalities were abolished by the Indonesian republic and replaced by a modern bureaucratic structure
1960s
  Buton Falihi of Buton 1960 Integration with Indonesia.
  Ghana Elizabeth II Abolished its monarchy pursuant to a referendum; official result: 88% in favour of republic.
  South Africa 1961 Abolished its monarchy pursuant to a referendum; official result: 53% in favour of republic. South Africa also withdrew from the Commonwealth, but was readmitted on 1 June 1994.
  Rwanda Kigeli V coup d'état, followed by referendum; official result: 80% in favour of abolishing monarchy.
  Tanganyika Elizabeth II 1962 Abolished its monarchy after adopting a new republican constitution.
  Yemen Muhammad al-Badr coup d'état
  South Kasai Albert Kalonji Status of the head of state was complicated, Albert Kalonji used the title of Mulopwe (God-king/Emperor).
  Nigeria Elizabeth II 1963 Abolished its monarchy after amending its constitution.
  Uganda Abolished its monarchy after amending its constitution.
  Kenya 1964 Abolished its monarchy after amending its constitution.
  Zanzibar Jamshid bin Abdullah Zanzibar Revolution
  Burundi Ntare V 1966 coup d'état
  Malawi Elizabeth II Abolished its monarchy after adopting a new republican constitution.
  Fadhli Sultanate Nasser bin Abdullah bin Hussein bin Ahmed Alfadhli 1967 Incorporation into the newly created People's Republic of South Yemen.
  Qu'aiti Sultanate in Hadhramaut Ghalib II bin Awadh bin Saleh Al Qu'aiti
  Sultanate of Upper Yafa Muhammad ibn Salih Harharah
  Sultanate of Lower Yafa Mahmud ibn Aidrus Al Afifi
Muflahi Sheikhdom al Qasim ibn Abd ar Rahman
Audhali Sultanate Salih ibn al Husayn ibn Jabil Al Audhali
  Emirate of Beihan Saleh al Hussein Al Habieli
Dathina Sheikhdom
  Emirate of Dhala Shafaul ibn Ali Shaif Al Amiri
  Wahidi Sultanate of Balhaf in Hadhramaut
Sheikhdom of Shaib Yahya ibn Mutahhar al-Saqladi
Alawi Sheikhdom Salih ibn Sayil Al Alawi
Aqrabi Sheikhdom Mahmud ibn Muhammad Al Aqrabi
  Wahidi Sultanate of Haban in Hadhramaut Husayn ibn Abd Allah Al Wahidi
Qutaibi Sheikhdom
Hadrami Sheikhdom
Mausatta Sheikhdom
Busi Sheikhdom
Dhabi Sheikhdom
Haushabi Sultanate Faisal bin Surur Al Haushabi
  Kathiri Sultanate in Hadhramaut Al Husayn ibn Ali
  Mahra Sultanate
  Sultanate of Lahej Ali bin Abd al Karim al Abdali
Sheikhdom of al-Hawra
Sheikhdom of al-`Irqa
Lower Aulaqi Sultanate Nasir ibn Aidrus Al Awlaqi
Upper Aulaqi Sultanate Awad ibn Salih Al Awlaqi
Upper Aulaqi Sheikhdom Amir Abd Allah ibn Muhsin al Yaslami Al Aulaqi
  Ankole Gasiyonga II Abolished by the government of President Milton Obote. It remains officially inexistant, as President Yoweri Museveni has opposed the kingdom's restoration.[29][30]
Tidore Zainal Abidin Syah Sultanate abolished.
  Maldives Muhammad Fareed Didi 1968 Referendum; official result: 81.23% in favour of republic.
  Libya Idris I 1969 coup d'état
Saloum Maad Saloum Fode N'Gouye Joof Last monarchs died; the realms were incorporated into the newly independent Republic of Senegal.
Sine Maad a Sinig Mahecor Joof
1970s
  Guyana Elizabeth II 1970 Abolished its monarchy after adopting a resolution establishing a republic.[31]
  Cambodia Norodom Sihanouk Later restored (see below).
  Rhodesia Elizabeth II Abolished its unrecognised monarchy. An unrecognised government of the British colony of Southern Rhodesia had unilaterally declared independence as Rhodesia in 1965, proclaiming Elizabeth II as Queen, but she did not accept the title, nor was it recognised by any other state. Following a referendum in 1969, in which 81% voted to abolish the monarchy, a republic was declared in 1970. Rhodesia continued to be internationally recognised as a British colony through 1979, when it was disestablished and the independent republic of Zimbabwe was founded in 1980, which was a member of the Commonwealth until December 2003.
  The Gambia Abolished its monarchy pursuant to a referendum; official result: 70.45% in favour of republic.
  Sierra Leone 1971 Abolished its monarchy after adopting a new republican constitution.
  Ceylon 1972 Abolished its monarchy after adopting a new republican constitution; country renamed to "Sri Lanka".
  Afghanistan Mohammed Zahir Shah 1973 coup d'état
  Greece Constantine II 1974 Referendum; official result: 69.18% against monarchy. A prior referendum had been organised by the military junta with 78.57% in favour of a republic, but was annulled after the junta was overthrown earlier in 1974.
  Malta Elizabeth II Abolished its monarchy after amending its constitution.
  Ethiopia Haile Selassie I / Amha Selassie 1975 Abolished the monarchy following a coup d'état in 1974.
  Sikkim Palden Thondup Namgyal Referendum; official result: 97% to become a state of India.
  Laos Savang Vatthana Communist takeover by the Pathet Lao
  Trinidad and Tobago Elizabeth II 1976 Abolished its monarchy after adopting a new republican constitution.
  Iran Mohammad Reza Pahlavi 1979 Iranian Revolution
  Central Africa Bokassa I Dethroned by a French military operation to restore the deposed president to power.
1980s
  Rwenzururu Charles Mumbere 1982 Forced to abdicate by the government of Uganda; declaration of independence of Rwenzururu was annulled.
  Fiji Elizabeth II 1987 Abolished its monarchy as a result of the September 1987 coup d'état by Sitiveni Rabuka. Elizabeth II remained recognized as Paramount Chief by the Great Council of Chiefs until the council's de-establishment on 14 March 2012 by Frank Bainimarama. Additionally, the Queen's portrait continued to feature on Fijian coins and banknotes until 2013.
1990s
  Kuwait Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Sabah 1990 Dethroned due to the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Restored in 1991 (see below).
  Mauritius Elizabeth II 1992 Abolished its monarchy after amending its constitution.
2000s
  Samoa Malietoa Tanumafili II 2007 Died in office, triggering a transition to subsequent O le Ao o le Malo (heads of state) being elected for five-year terms. The country is a de jure republic, although all heads of state have been members of the high lineage tamaʻāiga dynasties. A proposal to elect future officeholders for life has been made.[32]
  Nepal Gyanendra 2008 Establishment of a federal republic approved by the 1st Nepalese Constituent Assembly.[33]
  Lo Jigme Dorje Palbar Bista Abolished by order of the Government of Nepal.[34]
2020s
  Barbados Elizabeth II 2021 Abolished its monarchy after adopting the Constitution (Amendment) (No. 2) Act, 2021, which created the office of the President of Barbados.

Monarchies that were abolished, restored, and continue to exist in the 21st century

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Country Year abolished Notes Year restored Years of republic
    England 1649 Commonwealth of England established, then Parliament reversed itself and invited the return of the monarchy. 1660 11
  Scotland 1652 Commonwealth 1660 8
  Spain 1873 First Spanish Republic established. 1874 1
1931 Second Spanish Republic established; restored (de jure) under the regency of Francisco Franco. De jure: 1947
De facto: 1975 		De jure: 16
De facto: 44
  Kuwait 1990 Republic of Kuwait proclaimed prior to annexation by Iraq; restored in the Gulf War. 1991 1
  Cambodia 1970 The Khmer Republic established; restored as an elective monarchy. 1993 23

Many other monarchies continue to exist in the 21st century, never having been abolished.

See also

edit

References

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  1. ^ "We need to abolish the monarchy – because it's not fair on anyone, including the royals". The Independent. 19 May 2018. Archived from the original on 19 May 2018. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  2. ^ "'Essentially, the monarchy is corrupt' – will republicanism survive Harry and Meghan?". The Guardian. 9 May 2018. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  3. ^ "Royal families: The countries that feel the strongest about abolishing their monarchies". QZ. 18 May 2018. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  4. ^ "Does the monarchy have a future?". Dhaka Tribune. 11 January 2020. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  5. ^ Aristotle, Constitution of Athens, 3
  6. ^ Matyszak 2003, p. 41.-42.
  7. ^ "The Restoration of a Limited Monarchy in England: Definition & History – Video & Lesson Transcript". study.com. Retrieved 16 November 2022.
  8. ^ Haley, K.H.D. (1985), Politics in the Reign of Charles II, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, ISBN 0-631-13928-1
  9. ^ "Stamp Act crisis and significance". Retrieved 16 November 2022.
  10. ^ Maya Jasanoff (2012). Liberty's Exiles: American Loyalists in the Revolutionary World. Random House. p. 357. ISBN 978-1-4000-7547-8.
  11. ^ "Dispossessing Loyalists and Redistributing Property in Revolutionary New York". The New York Public Library. Retrieved 16 November 2022.
  12. ^ Note for example: Breen, Timothy H. (2016). "4: Voices of the People". George Washington's Journey: The President Forges a New Nation. New York: Simon and Schuster (published 2017). p. 120. ISBN 978-1-4516-7543-6. Retrieved 24 February 2017. If most Americans saw the danger of addressing Washington as their American Caesar – he had absolutely no interest in becoming emperor – they nevertheless found it surprisingly appealing.
  13. ^ Everdell, William R. (2000). The End of Kings: A History of Republics and Republicans. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-22482-1.
  14. ^ Compare the 1871 election results with those of the end of the century, in which monarchist candidates barely attained any seats.
  15. ^ "Tufele; Young v." American Samoa Bar Associations. Retrieved 11 March 2021.
  16. ^ Turnbull, Malcolm (1999). Fighting for the Republic. South Yarra: Hardie Grant Books. p. 250.
  17. ^ Steve Vizard (1998). Two Weeks in Lilliput: Bear Baiting and Backbiting at the Constitutional Convention. Ringwood (Vic): Penguin. ISBN 0-14-027983-0.
  18. ^ Higley, John; Case, Rhonda (July 2000). "Australia: The Politics of Becoming a Republic". Journal of Democracy. 11 (3): 136–150. doi:10.1353/jod.2000.0058. ISSN 1045-5736. S2CID 153786108.
  19. ^ Steketee, Mike (31 October 2009). "Ten years after the referendum, we are no closer to a republic". The Australian. Retrieved 6 November 2009.
  20. ^ "Título X. De la reforma constitucional – Constitución Española".
  21. ^ "Why did Nepalese people abolish monarchy?". 13 June 2008.
  22. ^ "Nepal to Abolish Monarchy". NPR. 24 December 2007.
  23. ^ Faulconbridge, Guy; Ellsworth, Brian (30 November 2022). "Barbados ditches Britain's Queen Elizabeth to become a republic". Reuters.
  24. ^ Karim, Aeshah (31 August 2012). "Pakatan's new Malaysia flag: Not a copycat? Turning Malaysia to a Republic?". Aeshah Adlina's Weblog. Retrieved 4 July 2023.
  25. ^ Hodal, Kate (16 September 2013). "Cambodian election protests grip Phnom Penh". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 4 July 2023.
  26. ^ "UAE to try 94 nationals on alleged coup d'etat plans: official - People's Daily Online". en.people.cn. Retrieved 4 July 2023.
  27. ^ "King's Coronation: 21 people arrested face no further action, Met says". BBC News. 5 October 2023. Retrieved 11 October 2023.
  28. ^ "Met Police arrest anti-monarchy protesters". BBC News. 6 May 2023. Retrieved 11 October 2023.
  29. ^ "FACT CHECKER: Museveni on Ankole Kingdom". Monitor. 2 February 2021. Retrieved 3 September 2024.
  30. ^ "Ankole monarchists blame Museveni for sabotage". Monitor. 18 January 2021. Retrieved 3 September 2024.
  31. ^ "Resolution No. 26 of 1969". Parliament of the Co-operative Republic of Guyana. 29 August 1969. Retrieved 1 October 2021.
  32. ^ "Samoa's Head of State could be appointed for life". RNZ Pacific. Radio New Zealand. 4 November 2021. Retrieved 2 September 2024.
  33. ^ "Nepal votes to abolish monarchy". BBC News. 28 May 2008. Retrieved 21 July 2011.
  34. ^ "Nepali deputy PM asks district "king" to step down". Xinhua News Agency. 4 March 2009. Archived from the original on 4 March 2009. Retrieved 16 November 2022.
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