An Andersen sampler or Andersen impactor is a cascade impactor used to determine the amount of viable pathogens in a given area, in particular bacteria and fungi. Unlike real-time electronic particle counters, the Andersen sampler imparts pathogens on petri dishes, which require incubation. Thus, calculation of the contaminated air requires working backwards from the resulting pathogen growth in each dish.
Andersen samplers have been used to assess the nature of pathogenic aerosols in various scientific papers. It can also be used to study inert aerosols, when each stage of the sampler is used to model respiratory particle deposition.
Operation
edit
Andersen's paper from 1958 describes a six-stage Andersen sampler that counts "viable airborne particles". In each stage, air goes through specifically sized holes, past a petri dish that aerosols impact, before subsequently moving through smaller holes towards the other petri dishes. Each stage gradually increases the velocity of the air; the sampler relies on inertia for particles to leave the air stream.[1]
Calculation of the number of viable particles is normally done by counting colonies via a microscope, called the "microscope method" in Andersen's paper. For stages 3 through 6, Andersen provides an alternate means of calculating viable particles via the "positive hole method". The method involves counting the number of colonies from a macroscopic point of view; each visible colony corresponds to a hole in each stage of the Andersen sampler. A conversion table is then used to quickly calculate the number of viable particles.[1]
Andersen samplers have been used in various places and industries, including (but not limited to), compost facilities, to help mitigate the health impacts of fungal spores,[2] agriculture, to track bioaerosols more generally from livestock,[3] textiles,[4] apartment buildings,[5] wastewater facilities,[6] and even the aerosolization of anthrax following attacks in 2001.[7] Samplers have also been used to study inert lead dust, with each stage designed to simulate the deposition characteristics of the respiratory tract.[8]
History
editInformation on the development of the Andersen sampler was initially classified by the US army, but is declassified as of January 24, 1958.[9] A noted early use of the Andersen sampler was the tracking of disease in the states of Oregon and California.[10]
Continued development of the Andersen sampler was then the focus of Andersen 2000, Inc., originally CMC Industries, which had renamed itself following the acquisition of the relevant patents. As of November 1970, the company had released four models of the Andersen sampler, each _targeted towards different industries, with one being handheld. However, the stack sampler continued to be the company's most popular model.[11]
An assessment of the Andersen Mark-II cascade impactor was published in 1988.[12]
In 2012, a comparison was made between the "culturable particles" (CP) method and the "culturable organisms" (CO) method with the help of an Aerodynamic Particle Sizer (APS). The distributions between the CP and CO method were different enough for the null hypothesis to be rejected; the authors suggest that this may be due to the higher resolution particle count afforded by the APS, the Andersen sampler's wall losses, or the unintended collection of smaller particles in the earlier stages.[13]
In 2013, a group of researchers improved the collection efficiency of the Andersen sampler by adding mineral oil to the petri dish agar. Results were supported through the use of an optical particle counter.[14]
See also
edit- Cascade impactor – Graduated method of aerosol measurement and collection
- Aerosol impaction
- Particulate matter sampler
- Bioaerosol
- Particle counter
References
edit- ^ a b c Andersen, Ariel A. (1958). "New Sampler for the Collection, Sizing, and Enumeration of Viable Airborne Particles". Journal of Bacteriology. 76 (5): 471–484. doi:10.1128/jb.76.5.471-484.1958. PMC 290224. PMID 13598704.
- ^ Feldman, K. (1995). "Sampling for airborne contaminants". Biocycle. 36 (8): 84. ProQuest 236870502 – via ProQuest.
- ^ Cole, N.A.; PAS, Todd R.; Auvermann, B.; Parker, D. (2008). "Auditing and assessing air quality in concentrated feeding Operations1,2,3". Professional Animal Scientist. 24 (1): 1–22. doi:10.15232/S1080-7446(15)30804-4. ProQuest 230415564 – via ProQuest.
- ^ Rubbo, Sydney D.; Saunders, Jane (1963). "Liberation of Organisms from Contaminated Textiles". The Journal of Hygiene. 61 (4): 507–513. doi:10.1017/s0022172400021136. JSTOR 3860927. PMC 2134562. PMID 14099028.
- ^ Simard, Carole; Trudel, Michel; Paquette, Gilles; Payment, Pierre (1983). "Microbial Investigation of the Air in an Apartment Building". The Journal of Hygiene. 91 (2): 277–286. doi:10.1017/S0022172400060290. JSTOR 3862904. PMC 2129367. PMID 6358346.
- ^ Sorber, Charles A.; Bausum, Howard T.; Schaub, Stephen A.; Small, Mitchell J. (1976). "A Study of Bacterial Aerosols at a Wastewater Irrigation Site". Journal (Water Pollution Control Federation). 48 (10): 2367–2379. JSTOR 25040032. PMID 792471.
- ^ Weis, Christopher P. (2002). "Secondary Aerosolization of Viable <EMPH TYPE="ITAL">Bacillus anthracis</EMPH> Spores in a Contaminated US Senate Office". JAMA. 288 (22): 2853–2858. doi:10.1001/jama.288.22.2853. PMID 12472327.
- ^ Spear, Terry M.; Svee, Wayne; Vincent, James H.; Stanisich, Nick (1998). "Chemical Speciation of Lead Dust Associated with Primary Lead Smelting". Environmental Health Perspectives. 106 (9): 565–571. doi:10.2307/3434231. JSTOR 3434231. PMC 1533158. PMID 9721256.
- ^ "Air 'Sampler' at Dugway Aids Studies". The Salt Lake Tribune. 1958-01-24 – via newspaperarchive.com.
- ^ "Provoan Develops Air Pollution Study Instrument". Utah Provo Daily Herald. 1958-01-26 – via newspaperarchive.com.
- ^ "They Make Pollution Pay". The Deseret News. 1970-11-07 – via Google News Archive.
- ^ Mitchell, J.P.; Costa, P.A.; Waters, S. (1988). "An assessment of an andersen mark-II cascade impactor". Journal of Aerosol Science. 19 (2): 213–221. Bibcode:1988JAerS..19..213M. doi:10.1016/0021-8502(88)90224-8.
- ^ King, Maria D.; McFarland, Andrew R. (2012). "Use of an Andersen Bioaerosol Sampler to Simultaneously Provide Culturable Particle and Culturable Organism Size Distributions". Aerosol Science and Technology. 46 (8): 852–861. Bibcode:2012AerST..46..852K. doi:10.1080/02786826.2012.669507.
- ^ Xu, Zhenqiang; Wei, Kai; Wu, Yan; Shen, Fangxia; Chen, Qi; Li, Mingzhen; Yao, Maosheng (2013). "Enhancing Bioaerosol Sampling by Andersen Impactors Using Mineral-Oil-Spread Agar Plate". PLOS ONE. 8 (2): e56896. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...856896X. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0056896. PMC 3584084. PMID 23460818.
Further reading
edit- Gillespie, V.L.; Clark, C.S.; Bjornson, H.S.; Samuels, S.J.; Holland, J.W. (1981). "A comparison of two-stage and six-stage Andersen impactors for viable aerosols". American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal. 42 (12): 858–864. doi:10.1080/15298668191420819.
- Blomquist, Göran; Palmgren, Urban; Ström, Gunnar (1984). "Improved techniques for sampling airborne fungal particles in highly contaminated environments". Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health. 10 (4): 253–258. doi:10.5271/sjweh.2334. JSTOR 40965745. PMID 6494845.
- Solomon, William R. (1970). "A simplified application of the Andersen sampler to the study of airborne fungus particles". Journal of Allergy. 45 (1): 1–13. doi:10.1016/0021-8707(70)90012-2. PMID 5262360.
- Lednicky, John A.; Fennelly, Kevin; Tribby, Matthew; Wu, Chang-Yu; Heil, Gary L.; Radonovich, Lewis; Loeb, Julia (2014). "Collection and measurement of aerosols of viable influenza virus in liquid media in an Andersen cascade impactor". Virus Adaptation and Treatment: 1. doi:10.2147/VAAT.S74789.
- Greene, V. W.; Vesley, D. (1962). "Method for Evaluating Effectiveness of Surgical Masks". Journal of Bacteriology. 83 (3): 663–667. doi:10.1128/jb.83.3.663-667.1962. PMC 279325. PMID 13901536.