List of countries and territories where Arabic is an official language
Arabic and its different dialects are spoken by around 422 million speakers (native and non-native) in the Arab world as well as in the Arab diaspora making it one of the five most spoken languages in the world. Currently, 22 countries are member states of the Arab League (as well as 5 countries were granted an observer status) which was founded in Cairo in 1945. Arabic is a language cluster comprising 30 or so modern varieties.[1]
Arabic is the lingua franca of people who live in countries of the Arab world as well as of Arabs who live in the diaspora, particularly in Latin America (especially Brazil, Argentina, Venezuela, Chile and Colombia) or Western Europe (like France, Spain, Germany or Italy).
Cypriot Arabic is a recognized minority language in the EU member state of Cyprus and, along with Maltese, is one of only two extant European varieties of Arabic, though it has its own standard literary form and has no diglossic relationship with Standard Arabic.[2] Maltese is one of the official languages of the EU.
Sovereign states where Arabic is an official language
editAs of 2024, there are 24 sovereign states where Modern Standard Arabic is an official language. The following is a list of sovereign states and territories where Arabic is an official language.
| No. | Sovereign state | Population | Notes | Member state of the Arab League | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 |  Algeria |
41,701,000 | Co-official language, along with Berber | Yes | ||
| 2 |  Bahrain |
1,343,000 | Official language | Yes | ||
| 3 |  Chad |
10,329,208 | Co-official language, along with French | Observer status | ||
| 4 |  Comoros |
798,000 | Co-official language, along with Comorian and French | Yes | ||
| 5 |  Djibouti |
810,179 | Co-official language, along with French | Yes | ||
| 6 |  Egypt |
102,442,939 | Official language | Yes | ||
| 7 |  Iraq |
36,004,552 | Co-official language, along with Kurdish | Yes | ||
| 8 |  Jordan |
6,655,000 | Official language | Yes | ||
| 9 |  Kuwait |
2,789,000 | Official language | Yes | ||
| 10 |  Lebanon |
4,965,914 | Official language | Yes | ||
| 11 |  Libya |
6,244,174 | Official language | Yesa | ||
| 12 |  Mali |
21,359,722 | Co-official language, along with 12 other languages | No | ||
| 13 |  Mauritania |
3,359,185 | Official language | Yes | ||
| 14 |  Morocco |
35,250,000 | Co-official language, along with Berber | Yes | ||
| 15 |  Oman |
4,055,418 | Official language | Yes | ||
| 16 |  Palestineb |
4,484,000 | Official language in the State of Palestinec | Yes | ||
| 17 |  Qatar |
2,155,446 | Official language | Yes | ||
| 18 |  Saudi Arabia |
30,770,375 | Official language | Yes | ||
| 19 |  Somalia |
10,428,043 | Co-official language, along with Somali | Yes | ||
| 20 |  Sudan |
40,235,000 | Official language | Yes | ||
| 21 |  Syriad |
20,956,000 | Official language | Yes | ||
| 22 |  Tunisia |
10,982,754 | Official language | Yes | ||
| 23 |  United Arab Emirates |
9,346,129 | Official language | Yes | ||
| 24 |  Yemen |
23,833,000 | Official language | Yese | ||
| – | Total | 417,338,722 | Arabic Language International Council | Arab League | ||
| a. Libya's seat is taken by the House of Representatives (Libya) (which is disputed by the Muslim Brotherhood-led General National Congress and Government of National Accord). b. Out of the 193 member states of the United Nations, 144 member states currently recognize the State of Palestine. c. The Palestinian territories (also called the Israeli-occupied territories) are occupied by Israel but do not legally belong to the State of Israel according to the Supreme Court of Israel and the International Court of Justice of the United Nations (UN). | ||||||
States with limited recognition and territories where Arabic is an official language
editThe following is a list of states with limited recognition as well as territories where Arabic is an official or de facto official language.
| No. | State/Territory | Population | Notes | Member state of the Arab League | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 |  Somalilanda |
5,700,000 | Co-official language, along with Somali and English | No | ||
| 2 |  Zanzibarb |
1,303,569 | Co-official language, along with Swahili and English | No | ||
| 3 |  Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republicc |
502,585 | Co-official language, along with Spanish | No | ||
|
a. Internationally recognised as part of Somalia. | ||||||
Countries where Arabic is a national/working language or a recognized minority language
editAs of 2016, there are 5 independent countries where Arabic is a national/working language or a recognized minority language, but not primary language. The following is a list of sovereign states and territories where Arabic is a national language or a recognized minority language.
| No. | Country | Population | National/Working language or minority language |
Continent |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 |  Cyprus[note 1] |
875,900 | Minority language | Asia, Europe |
| 2 |  Eritrea |
6,380,803 | Working language | Africa |
| 3 |  Iran |
83,145,546 | Minority language | Asia |
| 4 |  Niger |
22,314,743 | National language | Africa |
| 5 |  Senegal |
16,209,125 | National language | Africa |
| – | Total | 128,926,117 |
Cyprus
editCypriot Arabic (alongside Armenian) is one of the two recognized minority languages of Cyprus, since 2008.[3] It is spoken by the Maronite community, which is a minority in Cyprus especially in the cities Nicosia, Limassol and Larnaca.
Cypriot Arabic (also known as Cypriot Maronite Arabic) is taught at the Elementary School of St. Maron, which is located in Anthoupolis southern of Nicosia, Cyprus.[4]
Eritrea
editDebate exists over the extent of Arabic in Eritrea; the government position is that the language was introduced by the British and is only in use by a professional elite and the Rashaida minority, whereas others have taken the view the language acts as the lingua franca of the country's Muslims.[5] Eritrea is an observer state in the Arab League.
Iran
editArabic is a recognized minority language of Iran. In addition, the constitution recognizes the Arabic language as the language of Islam, giving it a formal status as the language of religion, and regulates its spreading within the Iranian national curriculum. After the Islamic Revolution in 1979, Arabic (as the language of Quran) became mandatory for pupils in Iran. Arabic courses are mandatory starting from 6th year of schooling (1st year of Middle School) until the 11th year (penultimate year of High School).
The local dialects of Arabic spoken by Arab minorities in Iran (like Ahwazi Arabs, Khamseh Arabs, Marsh Arabs as well as Arabs in Khorasan) are Khuzestani Arabic and Mesopotamian Arabic, (also known as Iraqi Arabic) mainly in Khuzestan Province as well as Khorasani Arabic especially in Khorasan Province.
There are several TV channels in Arabic language broadcasting from Iran, namely, Al-Alam, Al-Kawthar TV, iFilm, Ahwazna TV, Al Ahwaz TV and Al-Ahvaz TV. Currently, the sole newspaper in Arabic language published in Iran is Kayhan Al Arabi out of 23 Persian dailies and three English dailies newspapers in Iran.
In 2008, the public university Payame Noor University declared that Arabic will be the "second language" of the university, and that all its services will be offered in Arabic, concurrent with Persian.[6]
Niger
editArabic is one of the recognized national languages in Niger. Arabic is spoken by a minority in Niger especially by the Diffa Arabs (also known as Mahamid Arabs) an Arab nomadic tribespeople who is living in eastern Niger, mostly in the Diffa Region.
Senegal
editArabic is one of the recognized national languages in Senegal. Hassaniya Arabic is spoken by a minority in Senegal.[7]
Countries where Arabic has a special status according to the constitution
editAs of 2018, there are 5 independent countries where Arabic has a special status according to the constitution. The following is a list of sovereign states and territories where Arabic has a special status according to the constitution.
| No. | Country | Population | Official language(s) | Other recognized language(s) |
Continent | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Iran |
83,145,546 | Persian | Arabica | Asia | |
| 2 |  Israelb |
9,149,960 | Hebrew | Arabicc | Asia | |
| 3 |  Pakistan |
218,396,000 | Urdu, English | Arabicd | Asia | |
| 4 |  Philippines |
100,981,437 | Filipino, English | "Regional Languages", Spanish, Arabice | Asia | |
| 5 |  South Africa |
60,142,978 | English, isiZulu, isiXhosa, Afrikaans, Sepedi, Setswana, South African Sign Language, Sesotho, Xitsonga, siSwati (Swazi), Tshivenda, isiNdebele | Khoi, Nama, San, German, Greek, Gujarati, Hindi, Portuguese, Tamil, Telegu, Urdu, Hebrew, Sanskrit, Arabicf | Africa | |
| – | Total | 471,815,921 | ||||
| a. ^ The constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran recognizes the Arabic language as the language of Islam, giving it a formal status as the language of religion, and regulates its spreading within the Iranian national curriculum. The constitution declares in Chapter II: (The Official Language, Script, Calendar, and Flag of the Country) in Article 16 "Since the language of the Qur`an and Islamic texts and teachings is Arabic, ..., it must be taught after elementary level, in all classes of secondary school and in all areas of study."[8] b. Out of the 193 member states of the United Nations, 162 member states currently recognize the State of Israel. | ||||||
Iran
editThe constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran recognizes the Arabic language as the language of Islam, giving it a formal status as the language of religion, and regulates its spreading within the Iranian national curriculum. The constitution declares in Chapter II: (The Official Language, Script, Calendar, and Flag of the Country) in Article 16 "Since the language of the Qur`an and Islamic texts and teachings is Arabic, ..., it must be taught after elementary level, in all classes of secondary school and in all areas of study."[8]
Israel
editArabic was an official language of Mandatory Palestine and was retained as an official language when the State of Israel was founded in 1948. In 2018, the Knesset upgraded the status of Hebrew from official to State language of Israel, and gave Arabic a special status in the State by adopting the relevant Basic Law. The Basic Law: Israel as the Nation-State of the Jewish People (an Israeli Basic Law which specifies the nature of the State of Israel as the nation-state of the Jewish People) states in No. 4 (B) that "The Arabic language has a special status in the state; Regulating the use of Arabic in state institutions or by them will be set in law." The law declares in No. 4 (C): "This clause does not harm the status given to the Arabic language before this law came into effect." The law was adopted by the Knesset 62 in favor, 55 against and two abstentions on 19 July 2018.[9]
Arabic is an indigenous language in the territory which form the state of Israel and which is still the lingua franca of Arab citizens of Israel as well as of Arab foreigners (especially Palestinians who have only a Palestinian Authority passport, not recognized by many countries. Thus, they consider Palestinians stateless). In addition, Arabic is spoken by Arab Jews in Israel who immigrated from different Arab countries to Israel (as Aliyah) and got the Israeli citizenship according to the Israeli Nationality Law of 1952.
Arabic names are shown on some seals of Arabic majority cities.
It is semi-official and used in ethnically mixed cities including Jerusalem, Haifa, and Tel Aviv-Yafo, as well as on most highway signage, official websites, and public buildings in areas with significant Arabic-speaking populations.
Pakistan
editAccording to the Constitution of Pakistan of 1956 the two languages Urdu (which is very close to Hindi, both also called Hindustani language which were two of the lingua franca of North India and Pakistan that time[13][14]) as well as Bengali (at that time the lingua franca in the territory which is today the independent state Bangladesh) became the national languages in the new founded state Islamic Republic of Pakistan. General Ayub Khan the second President of Pakistan advocated the institution of Arabic language teaching as part of national planning.[15] "Ayub`s educational plan emphasized Urdu and English as the primary language of Pakistan, but additionally recommended that Arabic be a secondary language of instruction along with English."[16] This recommendation was purely for religious reasons, as Pakistan is not an Arab country.
The Arabic language is mentioned in the constitution of Pakistan. It declares in article 31 No. 2 that "The State shall endeavour, as respects the Muslims of Pakistan (a) to make the teaching of the Holy Quran and Islamiat compulsory, to encourage and facilitate the learning of Arabic language ..."[10]
The National Education Policy 2017 declares in article 3.7.4 that: “Arabic as compulsory part will be integrated in Islamiyat from Middle to Higher Secondary level to enable the students to understand the Holy Quran.“ Furthermore, it specifies in article 3.7.6: “Arabic as elective subject shall be offered properly at Secondary and Higher Secondary level with Arabic literature and grammar in its course to enable the learners to have command in the language.“ This law is also valid for private schools as it defines in article 3.7.12: “The curriculum in Islamiyat, Arabic and Moral Education of public sector will be adopted by the private institutions to make uniformity in the society.“[17]
In 2021, Pakistan's upper house of parliament approved the ‘Compulsory Teaching of the Arabic Language Bill 2020’ which makes the teaching of Arabic mandatory at all primary and secondary schools in the capital, Islamabad.[18] The text of the bill says that Arabic should be taught from the first to the fifth grade and Arabic grammar should be taught from the sixth grade to the eleventh grade.[19][20] The main reasons given are that Arabic would open up more job opportunities for Pakistanis in the Middle East and lead to lower unemployment and increased remittances[18] and that Arabic is the language of the Quran, so making Arabic compulsory in school will help improve the understanding of it.[21]
Philippines
editThe Arabic language is mentioned in the Philippine constitution of 1986. It specifies that "Spanish and Arabic shall be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis."[11]
Arabic is mainly used by some Filipino Muslims in both a liturgical and instructional capacity since the arrival of Islam and establishment of several Sultanates (like Sultanate of Maguindanao, Sultanate of Sulu and Sultanate of Ranaw) and during Bruneian Empire in the present-day state Philippines. Along with Malay, Arabic was the lingua franca of the Malay Archipelago among Muslim traders and the Malay aristocracy in the Philippines' history.[citation needed] Arabic is taught for free and is promoted in some Islamic centres predominantly in the southernmost parts of Philippines.
South Africa
editThe Arabic language is mentioned in the Constitution of South Africa. It declares in Chapter 1 (Founding Provisions) Section 6, Languages that "A Pan South African Language Board established by national legislation must (b) promote and ensure respect for – (i) all languages commonly used by communities in South Africa, including ...; and (ii) Arabic, ... for religious purposes in South Africa."[12]
Non-sovereign entities and territories where Arabic is an official or de facto official language
editThe following is a list of non-sovereign entities and autonomous regions as well as territories where Arabic is an official or de facto official language.
| No. | Non-sovereign entity/Territory | Population | Notes | Continent | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 |  Azawad/ Arab Movement of Azawad[22] |
1,300,000 | Co-official language, along with Tuareg | Africa | ||
| 2 |  Galmudug |
1,230,000 | Co-official language, along with Somali | Africa | ||
| 3 |  Hirshabelle |
1,800,000 | Co-official language, along with Somali | Africa | ||
| 4 |  Iraqi Kurdistan[23] |
5,300,000 | Co-official language, along with Kurdish | Asia | ||
| 5 |  Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant |
4,800,000 | Official language | Asia | ||
| 6 |  Jubaland |
1,000,000 | Co-official language, along with Somali | Africa | ||
| 7 |  Khatumo |
2,000,000 | Co-official language, along with Somali | Africa | ||
| 8 |  Puntland |
1,285,000 | Co-official language, along with Somali | Africa | ||
| 9 |  Rojava (also called Democratic Federation of Northern Syria) |
4,600,000 | Co-official language, along with Kurdish and Syriac | Asia | ||
| 10 |  South West State of Somalia |
2,000,000 | Co-official language, along with Somali | Africa | ||
| 11 | Syrian Oppositiona[24] |
3,500,000 | Official language | Asia | ||
| – | Total | 28,835,000 | ||||
| a. The Syrian National Coalition is partially recognized as the sole legitimate government of the state Syrian Arab Republic. | ||||||
History
editUmayyad Caliphate
edit
The Muslim conquests (Arabic: الفتوحات الإسلامية, al-Futūḥāt al-Islāmiyya) and the following Expansion of Islam (Arabic: انتشار الإسلام, Intishar al-Islām) led to the expansion of the Arabic language in Northern Africa, the Iberian Peninsula, the Caucasus, Western Asia, Central Asia and South Asia. Along with the religion of Islam, the Arabic language, Arabic number system and Arab customs spread throughout the entire Arab caliphate. The caliphs of the Arab dynasty established the first schools inside the empire which taught Arabic language and Islamic studies for all pupils in all areas within the caliphate. The result was (in those areas which belonged to the Arab empire) the creation of the society that was mostly Arabic-speaking because of the assimilation of native inhabitants.
During the period of the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), the 5th Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik (646–705) established Arabic instead of the local languages as the sole official state language of government across the entire caliphate.[25]
Abbasid Caliphate
editWhile the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258) originally gained power by exploiting the social inequalities against non-Arabs in the Umayyad Empire, during Abbasid rule the empire rapidly was Arabized. As knowledge was shared in the Arabic language throughout the empire, people of different nationalities and religions began gradually to speak Arabic in their everyday lives. Resources from other languages began to be translated into Arabic, and a unique Islamic identity began to form that fused previous cultures with Arab culture, creating a level of civilization and knowledge that was considered a marvel in Europe and the Western world.[26]
Fatimid Caliphate
editThe Arabic language remained the lingua franca of high culture under the Fatimids (909–1171), Spanish Umayyads (856–1031) in the Iberian Peninsula, and later Muslim dynasties in North Africa and Spain and of the Mamluks (1250–1517) in Egypt and Syria-Palestine.[27]
Al-Andalus
editIn the history, Andalusian Arabic was the official language in Spain and Portugal, formerly Al-Andalus for more than 700 years until the fall of the last Islamic state in Iberia at Granada in 1492.
Italy and Malta
editSiculo-Arabic (or Sicilian Arabic) was a spoken language on the islands of Sicily and neighbouring Malta (at that time Emirate of Sicily (831–1091)) between the end of the ninth century and the end of the twelfth century.
Greece
editA form of Arabic was spoken on the Mediterranean island of Crete (Emirate of Crete) from the late 820s (c. 824 or 827/828) until the Byzantine reconquest in 961.
Omani Empire
editArabic was the official language of the Omani Empire (1696–1856). Several Arabic dialects and languages were the lingua francas in the different areas of this empire, like Omani Arabic, Yemeni Arabic, Persian, Balochi and Swahili.
South Sudan
editArabic (alongside English) was an official language in South Sudan from 1863 (these days a part of Egypt Eyalet (1517–1867)) until 2011 (that time the independent state Republic of South Sudan), when the former government canceled Arabic as an official language. Since 2011 English is the sole official language of South Sudan. The Arabic dialect Juba Arabic is still the lingua franca of the people in South Sudan.
The Gambia
editIn 2014, Gambian president Yahya Jammeh announced that The Gambia would drop English as the official language because it is a "colonial relic".[28][29] He replaced Gambia's official language English with Arabic in 2014.[30] However, such change was not enacted.
Israel
editThe Arabic language (alongside Hebrew) also remained as an official language in the State of Israel for the first 70 years after the proclamation in 1948 until 2018. The Knesset canceled the status of Arabic as an official language by adopting the relevant Basic Law: Israel as the Nation-State of the Jewish People on 19 July 2018. This Israeli Basic Law states in No. 4 (A) that "The state’s language is Hebrew."[9]
Territories where Arabic was an official or de facto official language and later replaced or repealed
editThere were several territories (which later became independent states) where Arabic was an official or de facto official language and where Arabic has been replaced by other languages or repealed. The following list specifies territories (which later became independent states) where Arabic was the official language when these territories were parts of the Umayyad Caliphate. During the reign of the fifth Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik, Arabic became the official language of the Umayyad Caliphate.[31][32][33][34] The previous local official languages in the different territories were replaced by the Arabic language.[35]
| No. | Current country | Current official language(s) |
Current spoken language(s) |
Historically belonged to |
Historical official language(s) |
Historical spoken language(s) |
Time period |
Continent |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 |  Afghanistan |
Pashto, Dari | Pashto, Dari, various others | Umayyad Caliphate | Arabic | Pashto, Dari, Uzbek, Turkmen, Central Asian Arabic | 661–750 | Asia |
| 2 |  Armenia |
Armenian | Armenian, various others | Umayyad Caliphate | Arabic | Arabic, Armenian | 661–750 | Asia |
| 3 |  Azerbaijan |
Azeri | Azeri, various others | Umayyad Caliphate | Arabic | Arabic, Azeri | 661–750 | Asia |
| 4 | Cyprus |
Greek, Co-official language, along with Turkish | Greek, Turkish, various others | Umayyad Caliphate | Arabic | Siculo-Arabic | 661–750 | Asia |
| 5 |  France[36] |
French | French, various others | Narbonne and a part of Septimania belonged to the Umayyad Caliphate | Arabic in the part of France which belonged to the Umayyad Caliphate | Frankish, Latin, Vulgar Latin (Gallo-Roman), Gaulish, Arabic | 719–759 | Europe |
| 6 |  Georgia |
Georgian | Georgian | Umayyad Caliphate | Arabic | Arabic, Georgian | 661–750 | Asia |
| 7 |  Greece |
Greek | Greek, various others | Emirate of Crete | Arabic | Arabic, Greek, various others | 824–961 | Europe |
| 8 | Iran |
Persian | Persian, various others | Umayyad Caliphate, Abbasid Caliphate, Buyid dynasty | Arabic | Arabic, Persian | 661–1062 | Asia |
| 9 | Israel |
Hebrew | Hebrew, Arabic, English, Russian, various others | Rashidun Caliphate, several other Muslim dynasties | Arabic | Arabic, Hebrew | 636–2018 | Asia |
| 10 |  Sicily[note 2] |
Italian | Italian, various others | Emirate of Sicily | Arabic | Siculo-Arabic, Byzantine Greek, Vulgar Latin | 831–1091 | Europe |
| 11 |  Kenya |
Swahili, Co-official language, along with English | Swahili, various others | Omani Empire | Arabic | Omani Arabic, Yemeni Arabic, Swahili | 1696–1856 | Africa |
| 12 |  Kyrgyzstan |
Kyrgyz | Kyrgyz, Uzbek | Umayyad Caliphate | Arabic | Central Asian Arabic, Kyrgyz | 651–750 | Asia |
| 13 |  Malta |
Maltese, Co-official language, along with English | Maltese, English, various others | Emirate of Sicily | Arabic | Siculo-Arabic, Byzantine Greek, Vulgar Latin | 831–1091 | Europe |
| 14 | Niger |
French | Arabic, Hausa, Zarma, various others | Sokoto Caliphate | Arabic | Classical Arabic, Hausa, Zarma | 1804–1908 | Africa |
| 15 |  Nigeria |
English | English, various others | Sokoto Caliphate | Arabic | Classical Arabic, Hausa, Fula | 1804–1908 | Africa |
| 16 | Pakistan |
Urdu, Co-official language, along with English | Urdu, various others | Umayyad Caliphate | Arabic | Urdu, Central Asian Arabic | 661–750 | Asia |
| 17 |  Portugal |
Portuguese | Portuguese, various others | Umayyad Caliphate, Emirate of Córdoba, Caliphate of Córdoba, Taifa of Badajoz, Almoravid dynasty, Almohad Caliphate | Arabic | Andalusian Arabic, Mozarabic, Medieval Hebrew | 711–1139 | Europe |
| 18 |  Spain[37] |
Spanish | Spanish, various others | Umayyad Caliphate, Emirate of Córdoba, Caliphate of Córdoba, Taifa of Zaragoza, Taifa Kingdom of Seville, Taifa of Córdoba, Almoravid dynasty, Almohad Caliphate, Emirate of Granada | Arabic | Andalusian Arabic, Mozarabic, Medieval Hebrew | 711–1492 | Europe |
| 19 |  South Sudan |
English | Juba Arabic, various others | Egypt Eyalet, Sudan | Arabic | Juba Arabic | 1863–2011 | Africa |
| 20 |  Tajikistan |
Tajik | Tajik | Umayyad Caliphate | Arabic | Central Asian Arabic, Tajik | 661–750 | Asia |
| 21 |  Tanzania |
Swahili, Co-official language, along with English, Arabic in Zanzibar | Swahili, various others; Omani Arabic in Zanzibar | Omani Empire | Arabic | Swahili, Omani Arabic, Yemeni Arabic | 1696–1856 | Africa |
| 22 |  Turkey |
Turkish | Turkish, various others | Umayyad Caliphate, Abbasid Caliphate | Arabic | North Mesopotamian Arabic | 661–1517 | Asia |
| 23 |  Turkmenistan |
Turkmen | Turkmen | Umayyad Caliphate | Arabic | Central Asian Arabic, Turkmen | 661–750 | Asia |
| 24 |  Uzbekistan |
Uzbek, various others | Uzbek | Umayyad Caliphate | Arabic | Central Asian Arabic, Uzbek | 661–750 | Asia |
See also
editNotes
edit
References
edit- ^ "Documentation for ISO 639 identifier: ara".
- ^ Robert D Hoberman (2007). "13: Maltese Morphology". In Alan S. Kaye (ed.). Morphologies of Asia and Africa. Eisenbrown. ISBN 978-1575061092.
Maltese is the chief exception: Classical or Standard Arabic is irrelevant in the Maltese linguistic community and there is no diglossia.
- ^ "Implementation of the Charter in Cyprus". Database for the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Public Foundation for European Comparative Minority Research. Archived from the original on 24 October 2011. Retrieved 24 December 2017.
- ^ Maronite Community of Cyprus: St Maron Elementary School, 11 December 2013, Retrieved 15 January 2018.
- ^ Mohammad, Abdulkader Saleh (2016-08-17). "Mother tongue versus Arabic: the post-independence Eritrean language policy debate". Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 37 (6): 523–535. doi:10.1080/01434632.2015.1080715. ISSN 0143-4632. S2CID 146966189.
- ^ عربی دومین زبان دانشگاه پیام نور شد (in Persian). Radiozamaaneh.com. Retrieved 30 December 2017.
- ^ Ethnologue: Ethnologue Languages of the World – Senegal – Languages, Retrieved 31 December 2017.
- ^ a b Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran: Iran (Islamic Republic of)`s Constitution of 1979. – Article: 16 Official or national languages, 1979, retrieved 25 July 2018
- ^ a b c "Full text of Basic Law: Israel as the Nation State of the Jewish People". The Knesset: Press Releases. State of Israel. Retrieved 20 July 2018.
- ^ a b Constitution of Pakistan: Constitution of Pakistan, 1973 – Article: 31 Islamic way of life, 1973, retrieved 13 June 2018
- ^ a b Joselito Guianan Chan; Managing Partner. "1987 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines, Article XIV, Section 7". Chan Robles & Associates Law Firm. Retrieved June 13, 2018.
- ^ a b Constitution of South Africa: South African Government Information: Constitution Constitution of South Africa, 1996 – Chapter 1, Section 6, Languages, 1996, retrieved 19 September 2021
- ^ Mohammad Tahsin Siddiqi (1994), Hindustani-English code-mixing in modern literary texts, University of Wisconsin,
... Hindustani is the lingua franca of both India and Pakistan ...
- ^ Lydia Mihelič Pulsipher; Alex Pulsipher; Holly M. Hapke (2005), World Regional Geography: Global Patterns, Local Lives, Macmillan, ISBN 0716719045,
... By the time of British colonialism, Hindustani was the lingua franca of all of northern India and what is today Pakistan ...
- ^ Ayres, Alyssa (2009). Speaking Like a State, Language and Nationalism in Pakistan. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0521519311.
General Ayub Khan was the first Pakistani leader to advocate the institution of Arabic language teaching as part of national planning.
- ^ Ayres, Alyssa (2009). Speaking Like a State, Language and Nationalism in Pakistan. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 39, 40. ISBN 978-0521519311.
Ayub`s educational plan emphasized Urdu and English as the primary language of Pakistan, but additionally recommended that Arabic be a secondary language of instruction along with English.
- ^ Ministry of Federal Education and Professional Training: National Education Policy 2017, p. 25, retrieved 19 June 2018
- ^ a b Arab News: Senate approves bill making Arabic classes compulsory at Islamabad schools, 1 February 2021, Retrieved 27 March 2021.
- ^ Senate of Pakistan: The Islamabad Compulsory Teaching of the Arabic Language, Bill, 2020, 1 February 2021, Retrieved 27 March 2021.
- ^ Pakistan Today: Arabic language bill sails through Senate, 1 February 2021, Retrieved 27 March 2021.
- ^ Gulf News: Pakistan parliament approves compulsory Arabic classes in Islamabad schools, 2 February 2021, Retrieved 27 March 2021.
- ^ "Languages of Mali". Ethnologue.com. Archived from the original on 29 April 2012. Retrieved 6 April 2012.
- ^ "Kurdistan: Constitution of the Iraqi Kurdistan Region". 2 November 2009. Retrieved 29 May 2021
- ^ "National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces". Retrieved 29 May 2021
- ^ "'Abd al-Malik". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. I: A–Ak – Bayes (15th ed.). Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2010. pp. 14–15. ISBN 978-1593398378.
- ^ Ochsenwald & Fisher 2004, p. 69
- ^ Hayrettin Yücesoy (2015) “Language of Empire: Politics of Arabic and Persian in the Abbasid World, p. 388.
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- Bibliography
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