Asmara (/æsˈmɑːrə/ əs-MAHR-ə), or Asmera, is the capital and most populous city of Eritrea, in the country's Central Region. It sits at an elevation of 2,325 metres (7,628 ft), making it the sixth highest capital in the world by altitude and the second highest capital in Africa. The city is located at the tip of an escarpment that is both the northwestern edge of the Eritrean Highlands and the Great Rift Valley in neighbouring Ethiopia. In 2017, the city was declared as a UNESCO World Heritage Site for its well-preserved modernist architecture.[3][4] According to local traditions, the city was founded after four separate villages unified to live together peacefully after long periods of conflict. Asmara had long been overshadowed by nearby Debarwa, the residence of the Bahr Negash or the governor of the coastal province, however it still existed as a major settlement for over half a millennium and enjoyed some importance as it stood on the trade route to Massawa. Asmara first rose to prominence during the 20th century, when it became capital of Italian Eritrea.[5][6] Under Italian rule the city of Asmara experienced rapid urbanization and modernization.
Asmara | |
|---|---|
| ኣስመራ | |
| |
 Coat of arms | |
 Interactive map outlining Asmara | |
| Coordinates: (City Hall of Asmara) 15°20′09″N 38°56′28″E / 15.33583°N 38.94111°E | |
| Country |  Eritrea |
| Region | Central |
| Districts | 13 |
| Demonym | Asmarino |
| Settled | 800 BC |
| Incorporated | 1890 |
| Government | |
| • Mayor of Asmera | Fshaye Haile |
| • Mayor of Zoba | Fshaye Haile |
| Area | |
| 45 km2 (17 sq mi) | |
| Elevation | 2,325 m (7,628 ft) |
| Population (2023)[1] | |
| 1,073,000 | |
| • Rank | 1st in Eritrea |
| • Density | 19,911/km2 (51,570/sq mi) |
| • Metro | 1,258,001[citation needed] |
| Time zone | UTC+03:00 (East Africa Time) |
| • Summer (DST) | (Not Observed) |
| HDI (2019) | |
| Climate | BSk |
| Official name | Asmara: A Modernist African City |
| Criteria | Cultural: ii, iv |
| Reference | 1550 |
| Inscription | 2017 (41st Session) |
| Area | 481 ha |
| Buffer zone | 1,203 ha |
History
editAccording to Eritrean Tigrinya oral traditional history, there were four clans living in the Asmera area on the Kebessa Plateau: the Gheza Gurtom, the Gheza Shelele, the Gheza Serenser and Gheza Asmae. These villages were frequently attacked by clans from the lowlands, until the women of each clan decided that to preserve peace the four clans must unite. The men accepted, hence the name "Arbate Asmera". Arbate Asmera literally means, in the Tigrinya language, "the four (feminine plural) made them unite".[7]
The first mention of Asmara comes from a Latin itinerary during the reign of Emperor Dawit I (1382–1411).[6]
Italian Asmara
edit
Asmara, a small village in the nineteenth century, started to grow quickly when it was occupied by Italy in 1889.[8] Governor Ferdinando Martini made it the capital city of Italian Eritrea in 1897.[9]
In the early 20th century, the Eritrean Railway was built to the coast, passing through the town of Ghinda, under the direction of Carlo Cavanna. In both 1913 and 1915 the city suffered only slight damage in large earthquakes.[10]
A large Italian community developed the city.[11] According to the 1939 census, Asmara had a population of 98,000, of whom 53,000 were Italian. Only 75,000 Italians lived in all of Eritrea, thus making the capital city by far their largest centre.[12] (Compare this to the Italian colonization of Libya, where the settler population, albeit larger, was more dispersed.)
The capital acquired an Italian architectural look. Europeans used Asmara "to experiment with radical new designs".[13] By the late 1930s, Asmara was called Piccola Roma (Little Rome).[14] Journalist John Gunther noted in 1955 that "the Italians built [Asmara] well, like Tripoli, with handsome wide streets, ornate public buildings, and even such refinements of civilization as a modern sewage system ... [Asmara] gives the impression of being a pleasant enough small city in Calabria, or even Umbria.”[15] Nowadays more than 400 buildings are of Italian origin, and many shops still have Italian names (e.g., Bar Vittoria, Pasticceria moderna, Casa del formaggio, and Ferramenta).
The Kingdom of Italy invested in the industrial development of Asmara (and surrounding areas of Eritrea),[16] but the beginning of World War II brought this to a halt.
UNESCO made Asmara a World Heritage Site in July 2017, saying "It is an exceptional example of early modernist urbanism at the beginning of the 20th century and its application in an African context".[17]
Federation with Ethiopia
editIn 1952, the United Nations resolved to federate the former colony under Ethiopian rule. During the Federation, Asmara was no longer the capital city. The capital was now Addis Ababa, over 1,000 kilometres (620 miles) to the south. In 1961, Emperor Haile Selassie I ended the "federal" arrangement and declared the territory to be the 14th province of the Ethiopian Empire.[18] Ethiopia's biggest ally was the United States. The city was home to the US Army's Kagnew Station installation from 1943 until 1977. The Eritrean War of Independence began in 1961 and ended in 1991, resulting in the independence of Eritrea. Asmara was left relatively undamaged throughout the war, as were the majority of highland regions. After independence, Asmara again became the capital of Eritrea.
Geography
editThe city lies at an elevation of 2,325 metres (7,628 feet) above sea level. It lies on north–south trending highlands known as the Eritrean Highlands, an extension of the Ethiopian Highlands. The temperate central portion, where Asmara lies, is situated on a rocky highland plateau, which separates the western lowlands from the eastern coastal plains. The lands that surround Asmara are very fertile, especially those to the south towards the Debub Region of Eritrea. The highlands that Asmera is located in fall away to reveal the eastern lowlands, characterized by the searing heat and humidity of the Eritrean salt pans, lapped by the Red Sea. To the west of the plateau stretches a vast semi-arid hilly terrain continuing all the way towards the border with Sudan through the Gash-Barka Region.
Climate
edit
Asmara has a cool semi-arid climate (BSk) according to the Köppen climate classification.[19] It has year-round moderately warm weather, with recorded temperatures ranging between a minimum of −4.5 °C or 23.9 °F and a maximum of 31.0 °C or 87.8 °F. It has an average humidity of 51% and an UV-index of 6. Holdridge life zones system of bioclimatic classification put Asmara in or near the subtropical thorn woodland biome.[20] Rainfall patterns differ from month to month with highest precipitation in July and August, and lower precipitation in other months.[21]
Asmara has warm, but not hot summers and mild winters.[22] Due to its 2,325-metre (7,628 ft) altitude, temperatures are relatively mild for a city located not particularly far from the hotter surroundings in the country. This climate is characteristic of rainy, wet seasons and dry seasons.[23] Asmara averages about 518 mm (20.4 in) of precipitation annually. Frost, however, is extremely rare in the city. The long dry season of the year extends from September until around April, and a season of occasional showers occurs from April to June.[23] On average, about 60% of Asmara's annual precipitation is experienced during the months of July and August. In contrast, December to February are typically Asmara's driest months, where on average only 9.1 mm (0.36 in) of precipitation falls in the three months combined. Due to variable rainfall, Asmara's climate is also characterized by drought.[24] Several prolonged droughts in this region have occurred beginning in the 1960s and have recurred each decade since then.[24] During periods of drought, temperatures are high and little rainfall occurs. As temperatures in a region increase, the rate of evaporation of water from the soil also increases. These combined processes result in the desertification of the soil. In order to obtain nutrient rich and moist soil for farming purposes, populations rely on deforestation to make use of the underlying ground.[24] The most serious environmental issues Asmara faces are deforestation and desertification. Other issues Asmara faces are soil erosion and overgrazing. All of these environmental issues produce soil degradation.[24]
| Climate data for Asmara, Eritrea (1961–1990 normals, extremes 1903–2012) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 29.0 (84.2) |
29.2 (84.6) |
30.5 (86.9) |
31.0 (87.8) |
30.0 (86.0) |
29.4 (84.9) |
29.4 (84.9) |
27.4 (81.3) |
27.2 (81.0) |
31.0 (87.8) |
26.7 (80.1) |
26.2 (79.2) |
31.0 (87.8) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 22.3 (72.1) |
23.8 (74.8) |
25.1 (77.2) |
25.1 (77.2) |
25.0 (77.0) |
24.9 (76.8) |
21.6 (70.9) |
21.5 (70.7) |
22.9 (73.2) |
21.7 (71.1) |
21.5 (70.7) |
21.5 (70.7) |
23.1 (73.6) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 13.8 (56.8) |
14.9 (58.8) |
16.3 (61.3) |
17.0 (62.6) |
17.6 (63.7) |
17.6 (63.7) |
16.3 (61.3) |
16.1 (61.0) |
15.7 (60.3) |
14.9 (58.8) |
14.0 (57.2) |
13.2 (55.8) |
15.6 (60.1) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 4.3 (39.7) |
5.1 (41.2) |
7.5 (45.5) |
8.7 (47.7) |
10.2 (50.4) |
10.5 (50.9) |
10.8 (51.4) |
10.7 (51.3) |
8.6 (47.5) |
8.1 (46.6) |
6.6 (43.9) |
4.8 (40.6) |
8.0 (46.4) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −4.5 (23.9) |
−1.6 (29.1) |
−0.8 (30.6) |
−0.2 (31.6) |
2.0 (35.6) |
3.4 (38.1) |
3.9 (39.0) |
3.7 (38.7) |
0.2 (32.4) |
1.0 (33.8) |
−0.5 (31.1) |
−1.4 (29.5) |
−4.5 (23.9) |
| Average precipitation mm (inches) | 3.7 (0.15) |
2.0 (0.08) |
14.6 (0.57) |
33.4 (1.31) |
41.1 (1.62) |
38.5 (1.52) |
174.9 (6.89) |
155.6 (6.13) |
15.6 (0.61) |
15.4 (0.61) |
20.4 (0.80) |
3.4 (0.13) |
518.6 (20.42) |
| Average rainy days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 0 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 13 | 12 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 47 |
| Average relative humidity (%) | 54 | 48 | 46 | 49 | 48 | 48 | 76 | 80 | 59 | 63 | 66 | 61 | 58.2 |
| Mean monthly sunshine hours | 291.4 | 260.4 | 275.9 | 264.0 | 257.3 | 219.0 | 151.9 | 158.1 | 213.0 | 272.8 | 276.0 | 282.1 | 2,921.9 |
| Percent possible sunshine | 84 | 81 | 75 | 71 | 65 | 57 | 38 | 41 | 59 | 76 | 82 | 82 | 67 |
| Source 1: NOAA[25] | |||||||||||||
| Source 2: Meteo Climat (extremes)[26] | |||||||||||||
Culture
edit
The city is home to the Eritrean National Museum. The city is often the starting point of the Tour of Eritrea cycling competition.
Architecture
editThe city is known for its early 20th-century buildings, including the Art Deco Cinema Impero (opened in 1937 and considered by the experts one of the world's finest examples of Art Déco style building[27]), Cubist Africa Pension, eclectic Eritrean Orthodox Enda Mariam Cathedral and former Opera House, the futurist Fiat Tagliero Building, the neo-Romanesque Church of Our Lady of the Rosary, Asmara, and the neoclassical Governor's Palace. The city is adorned by Italian colonial villas and mansions, one prominent example being the World Bank Building. Most of central Asmara was built between 1935 and 1941, so the Italians effectively managed to build almost an entire city in just six years.[28] At this time, the dictator Benito Mussolini had great plans for a second Roman Empire in Africa. War cut this short, but his injection of funds created the Asmara of today, which supposedly was to be a symbol to the colonial fascism during that period of time.
The city shows off most early 20th-century architectural styles. Some buildings are neo-Romanesque, such as the Church of Our Lady of the Rosary, some villas are built in a late Victorian style. Art Deco influences are found throughout the city. Essences of Cubism can be found on the Africa Pension Building, and on a small collection of buildings. The Fiat Tagliero Building shows almost the height of futurism, just as it was coming into big fashion in Italy.
Asmara is known to be an exceptionally modern city, not only because of its architecture, but Asmara also had more traffic lights than Rome did when the city was being built.[28] The city incorporates many features of a planned city.
Restaurants, bars, cafes
editAsmara has wide streets, restaurants, piazzas (town squares), bars and cafes while many of the boulevards are lined with palms trees. The Italian inspired food and culture is very present and was introduced during Italian Eritrea. Countless restaurants and cafes, serve high quality espresso, cappuccinos and lattes, as well as gelato parlours and restaurants with Italian Eritrean cuisine.[29] Common dishes served from the Italian Eritrean cuisine are 'Pasta al Sugo e Berbere', which means "pasta with tomato sauce and berbere" (spice), "lasagna" and "cotoletta alla milanese" (milano cutlet).[30][29]
UNESCO World Heritage Site
editAsmara was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in July 2017, becoming the first modernist city anywhere to be listed in its entirety.[31] The inscription taking place during the 41st World Heritage Committee Session.
The city has thousands of Art Deco, futurist, modernist, and rationalist buildings, constructed during the period of Italian Eritrea.[32][33][34][35][36][37] The city, nicknamed "La piccola Roma" ("Little Rome"), is located over 2,000 meters above sea level, and was an ideal spot for construction due to the relatively cool climate; architects used a combination of both Italian and local materials.
Some notable buildings include the Fiat Tagliero Building, Bar Zilli,[38] opera houses, hotels, and cinemas, such as the Cinema Impero.
A statement from UNESCO read:
It is an exceptional example of early modernist urbanism at the beginning of the 20th century and its application in an African context.
-
Teatro d'Opera, the opera house of Asmara. -
A building at the University of Asmara. -
Villa Roma, Italian embassy. -
-
Hotel (Albergo) Italia, built 1889. The hotel is one of the oldest hotels in Asmara -
The African pension. -
Interior of Asmara post office. -
The Embasoira built 1919 (Old Imperial hotel), celebrated 100 years in 2019. -
The Casa degli Italiani restaurant. -
The railway station in Asmara. -
An old house in the European quarter. -
The Historic Center of Asmara was placed on the World Monuments Fund's 2006 Watch List of 100 Most Endangered Sites. The listing was designed to bring more attention to the city to save the center from decay and redevelopment and to promote restoration.
Following CARP (a World Bank initiative on Cultural Heritage), the European Union Delegation in Asmara has engaged into a Heritage Project pertaining to building's restoration and archive management. Launched in 2010 the EU/Eritrea Cultural Project was expected to be completed in 2014 (Pierre Couté – Edward Denison, Project Design Report, EUD Asmara 2009).
Religion
edit
Four big landmarks of the city are the Church of Our Lady of the Rosary and the Kidane Mehret Cathedral of the Catholic faith (the former of Latin and the latter of Coptic rite), the Enda Mariam Cathedral of the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church, and the Al Khulafa Al Rashiudin Mosque of the Islamic faith. The population in the Central Region, which contains Asmara, is 89 percent Christian (almost 84 percent Orthodox, 4 percent Roman Catholic, and more than 1 percent Protestant) and 5 percent Muslim.[39]
Asmara is also the see of the archbishop of the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church, which became autocephalous in 1993. The archbishop was elevated in 1998 to the rank of Patriarchate of Eritrea, on a par with the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church.
Economy
editEritrean Airlines, the Eritrean Telecommunications Corporation, and other companies are headquartered in the city.[40] The country's national television station Eri-TV has many studios located in various areas in the capital.
Asmara Brewery, built 1939 under the name of Melotti, is located in the city and employs 600 people.[41] The brewery produces Asmara beer and other beverages like rum and gin. The brewery also owns and operates as a sponsor of the local football team Asmara Brewery FC, also named "Asmara Birra" (translated "Asmara Beer").
Transport
edit
After Eritrean independence, the roads of Asmara underwent extensive construction projects. Old roads were renovated and new highways were also built. There are five primary roads out of Asmara.[42]
Asmara International Airport serves the city with many international flights. Massawa International Airport is an alternative airport nearby.
As of 1999, there is a total of 317 kilometres of 950 mm (3 ft 1+3⁄8 in) (narrow gauge) rail line in Eritrea. The Eritrean Railway was built between 1887 and 1932.[43][44] Badly damaged during WWII and in later fighting, it was closed section by section, with the final closure coming in 1978.[45] After independence, a rebuilding effort commenced, and the first rebuilt section was reopened in 2003. As of 2009, the section from Asmara to Massawa was fully rebuilt and available for service.
Education
editAsmara has always been a national centre of education, and is home to many elementary and high schools. It was home to the University of Asmara from 1958 until the university was shut down in 2006, following the opening of a university at Mai Nefhi. During the period of Ethiopian Federation and annexation, the university was also linked with what was then the nation's largest tertiary institution, Addis Ababa University.
Universities and colleges
edit- University of Asmara (1958-2006)
- Eritrea Institute of Technology
Primary and secondary schools
editInternational schools
edit- Asmara International Community School – Anglophone international school
- Italian School of Asmara – Italian primary school with a Montessori department (1903-2020)
Secondary School's
- Shek Ibrahim Sultan Secondary School
- Red sea Secondary School
- Barka Secondary School
- Limeat Secondary School
- Halay Secondary School
- Hafeshawi Secondary School
- Isaac Tewoldemedhn High School
- Semaetat Secondary School
Districts
editAsmara is divided into 13 districts or administrative areas. These districts are subdivided into North, North-West, North-East, South-East, South-West, East, West and Central areas. The thirteen districts (or Neous Zobas) are:
- North
- Akhria District
- Abbashaul District
- Edaga Hamus District
- North-East
- Arbaete Asmara District
- North-West
- Mai Temenai District
- Paradiso District
- South-West
- Sembel District
- South-East
- Kahawuta District
- Godaif District
- Central
- Maakel Ketema District
- West
- Tiravolo District
- Tsetserat District
- East
- Gheza Banda District
- Gejeret District
Notable people
edit- Abraham Afewerki, popular singer, songwriter and music producer
- Isaias Afwerki, President of Eritrea
- Yemane Barya, famous Eritrean singer and musician
- Tsehaytu Beraki, popular Eritrean musician
- Asmeret Asefaw Berhe, soil biogeochemist and Director of the Office of Science at the US Department of Energy
- Gianfranco Calligarich, Italian novelist, screenwriter and dramatist
- Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, 8th Director-General of the World Health Organization
- Biniam Girmay, professional bicycle rider
- Remo Girone, Italian film and stage actor
- Dawit Isaak, Swedish-Eritrean journalist
- Meb Keflezighi, Eritrean-born American long-distance runner
- Bruno Lauzi, Italian singer-songwriter, poet and writer
- Gianfranco Rosi, Italian film director and documentarian
- Mehari Shinash, Eritrean footballer
- Mussie Zerai, Roman Catholic priest and activist for the right of asylum
See also
edit
References
edit- ^ "CIA – The World Factbook". Retrieved 2 September 2012.
- ^ "Sub-national HDI – Area Database – Global Data Lab". hdi.globaldatalab.org. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
- ^ Mark Byrnes An African City's Unusual Preservation Legacy Archived 12 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine 8 February 2012 Atlantic Cities
- ^ "Eritrea capital Asmera makes World Heritage list". 8 July 2017. Retrieved 8 July 2017.
- ^ "Arbate Asmara: The origin of the city". Archived from the original on 15 July 2019. Retrieved 14 January 2019.
- ^ a b Pankhurst, Richard (1982). History Of Ethiopian Towns. Steiner. p. 73. ISBN 9783515032049.
- ^ Palin, Michael (2007). Eritrea. Chalfont St Peter, United Kingdom: Bradt Travel Guides Ltd. p. 82. ISBN 978-1-84162-171-5.
- ^ "Dadfeatured: ITALIAN ASMARA". 6 August 2018.
- ^ AA.VV. (1994). Guida dell'Africa Orientale Italiana (in Italian). Milano: Consociazione Turistica Italiana. p. 199.
- ^ Ambraseys, Nicolas; Melville, C.P.; Adams, R.D. (1994). The Seismicity of Egypt, Arabia and the Red Sea: A Historical Review. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-39120-2.
- ^ Roman Adrian Cybriwsky, Capital Cities around the World: An Encyclopedia of Geography, History, and Culture, ABC-CLIO, USA, 2013, p. 19
- ^ "Benvenuto sul sito del Maitacli" (in Italian). Archived from the original on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 8 July 2011.
- ^ "Asmara useful for experimenting with radical designs for Europeans". The Washington Times. 15 September 2007. Retrieved 8 December 2010.
- ^ "Italian architectural planification of Asmera (in Italian) p. 64-66" (PDF).
- ^ Gunther, John (1955). Inside Africa. Harper & Brothers. p. 278. ISBN 0836981979.
- ^ "ITALIAN ERITREA INDUSTRIES". 9 April 2015.
- ^ "Asmara, the capital of Art Deco". 14 July 2017.
- ^ Encyclopedia of Urban Cultures. Grolier Publishing Co. 2002. ISBN 9780717256983.
- ^ "Climate Asmara – Temperature • Best time to visit • Weather". Besttimetovisit.co.uk. Retrieved 8 June 2020.
- ^ "Yearly & Monthly weather - Asmara, Eritrea".
- ^ "Asmara Climate Asmara Temperatures Asmara, Eritrea Weather Averages". www.climate.top. Retrieved 16 February 2024.
- ^ Semere, Soloman (23 December 2005). "Groundwater study using remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS) in the central highlands of Eritrea". Hydrogeology Journal. 14 (5): 729–741. doi:10.1007/s10040-005-0477-y. S2CID 55130364.
- ^ a b Semere, Soloman (23 December 2005). "Groundwater study using remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS) in the central highlands of Eritrea". Hydrogeology Journal. 14 (5): 729–741. doi:10.1007/s10040-005-0477-y. S2CID 55130364.
- ^ a b c d Ghebrezgabher, Mihretab (7 September 2015). "Extracting and analyzing forest and woodland cover change in Eritrea based on Landsat data using supervised classification". The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Science. 19 (1): 37–47. doi:10.1016/j.ejrs.2015.09.002.
- ^ "Asmara Climate Normals 1961–1990". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 13 January 2015.
- ^ "Station Asmara" (in French). Meteo Climat. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
- ^ Gianluca Rossi, Renzo Martinelli inviato de La Nazione, 2009.
- ^ a b "Reviving Asmara". BBC Radio 3. 19 June 2005. Retrieved 30 August 2006.
- ^ a b lorenzopinnavideo (7 June 2011), Asmara, la più bella città africana, archived from the original on 11 December 2021, retrieved 18 September 2017
- ^ "Food and drink in Eritrea". Worldtravelguide.net. Retrieved 8 June 2020.
- ^ Wainwright, Oliver (8 July 2017). "The Italian architecture that shaped new world heritage site Asmara". The Guardian. Retrieved 9 July 2017.
- ^ a b Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Asmara: A Modernist African City". UNESCO World Heritage Centre.
- ^ Commentary, Tom Gardner (11 July 2017). "Eritrea's picturesque capital is now a World Heritage site and could help bring it in from the cold". Quartz Africa.
- ^ "Eritrea capital, Asmara, makes UNESCO World Heritage list | Africanews". Archived from the original on 4 August 2021. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
- ^ "Eritrea's capital added to UNESCO World Heritage site list | DW | 08.07.2017". DW.COM.
- ^ "The modernist marvels of Eritrea". Apollo Magazine. 19 November 2019.
- ^ "Exploring Eritrea's UNESCO certified Art-Deco wonderland". The Independent. 9 November 2017.
- ^ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Asmara: A Modernist African City". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 16 February 2024.
- ^ Hsu, Becky (ed.), Eritrea: Religious Distribution (PDF), p. 3, retrieved 22 December 2011
- ^ Welcome to the Telecommunication Internet Service Provider – TSEiNET, archived from the original on 20 July 2011, retrieved 8 July 2011
- ^ "Asmara Brewery". Asmara Brewery. Retrieved 8 June 2020.
- ^ Stevis, Matina (21 October 2015). "What It's Like Inside Asmara, One of Africa's Most Isolated Capitals". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 14 November 2016.
- ^ Publications, Europa Europa (31 October 2002). Africa South of the Sahara 2003. Psychology Press. ISBN 9781857431315 – via Google Books.
- ^ "Eritrean Railway Revival". www.internationalsteam.co.uk.
- ^ "Italian-Eritrean Railway and Tramway". www.trainweb.org.
Further reading
edit- Peter Volgger and Stefan Graf: "Architecture in Asmara. Colonial Origin and Postcolonial Experiences", DOM publishers, Berlin 2017,ISBN 978-3-86922-487-9
- Stefan Boness: "Asmara – Africa's Jewel of Modernity". Jovis Verlag, Berlin 2016, ISBN 978-3-86859-435-5 (photo book; German, English)
- Stefan Boness: "Asmara – The Frozen City". Jovis Verlag, Berlin 2006. 96 pages. ISBN 3-936314-61-6 (photo book; German, English)
- Edward Denison, Guang Yu Ren, Naigzy Gebremedhin, and Guang Yu Ren, Asmara: Africa's Secret Modernist City (2003) ISBN 1-85894-209-8
- Gianluca Rossi, Renzo Martinelli inviato de "La Nazione", 2009, ISBN 978-88-7255-356-5
External links
edit- Asmara, Eritrea Documentary Film about the city by filmmaker Caterina Borelli
- History of Asmara
- Asmara inscription in UNESCO
