Christians have been present in the military since after the death of Jesus,[1] Marinus of Caesarea, Julius the Veteran, and other military saints were Christians who were soldiers.
Other Christians, such as Maximilian of Tebessa, were conscientious objectors, believing that the Bible supported Christian pacifism.
Early Christianity
editIn the first centuries after the time of Jesus, some soldiers decided to follow Christianity, but few Christians decided to join the military voluntarily.[2][3] In the second century, Celsus accused Christians of shirking their civic duty by refusing to serve in the army; Origen, a Christian scholar, agreed with this accusation, but suggested that Christians serve their communities in different ways.[4] The main reason for this was that Christianity was seen as a religion of love and peace; therefore war and killing was seen as being in opposition to a Christian life. However, other aspects of army life, such as arresting Christians and taking part in mandatory pagan practices and sacrifices, would also have been at odds with Christianity.[4] Origen believed in the idea of a "just war", but also believed that Christians could not be part of military warfare.[2]
In the third century Tertullian asked if it was possible for a Christian to "ask a watchword from the emperor who has already received one from God",[4] as well as noting that Jesus had taught that "he who lives by the sword shall die by the sword";[5] however he did believe that Christians should be loyal citizens and pray for their emperor.[2]
In 212, the Constitutio Antoniniana was issued by the Roman emperor Caracalla.[6] This stated that all free men in the empire were to be given full Roman citizenship. This, combined with the later conversion of Constantine, brought a halt to religious persecution of Christians and after some time, some Christians began to look at the military as a possible career. It has been suggested that this would later underpin the enforcement of uniform religious belief.[7]
Under the Emperor Diocletian, attempts were made to purge Christians from the army in 299. However, the Roman army continued to include many Christians, and the presence of large numbers of Christians in his army may have been a factor in the conversion of Constantine I to Christianity.[8]
Christianity and the "Just War"
editAfter Constantine's conversion to Christianity, theologians began to look at war and the military in detail. In the fifth century, Saint Augustine took Romans 13:4[9] as a basis for each Christian to decide for themselves if they wished to join an army. He also noted that "No war is undertaken by a good state except on behalf of good faith or for safety" [10]
The Orthodox Church took the view that it was better to change the soul of the enemy rather than to kill them;[11] however, they also saw an obligation to defend against a threat, and as such saw war as a lesser, necessary evil.
In the 13th century, Thomas Aquinas set out the criteria for a just war in the Summa Theologica.[12] His ideas, based on Christian mercy, influenced rulers and military for several centuries.[13]
Holy war
editOver the next few centuries, Christians had less reservations about joining an army, especially for a 'holy war'. In particular, the Crusades were initiated as a necessary war to reclaim the Holy Land against the enemies of God and were supported by Pope Urban II,[14] who offered religious rewards of forgiveness of sins and glory in heaven to those who joined the conflict. The armed Order of the Knights Templar was a set up during this time.[15]
The Reformation
editWhen large groups of Christians broke away from the Roman Catholic church in the 16th century, many of them followed theologians such as John Calvin and Zwingli. Calvin's beliefs included the Just War tradition and the idea that war was justified as a means of preserving the peace.[16][17] Zwingli was originally a chaplain in the Swiss Mercenary Army and his experiences there led to him championing the case against mercenaries.[18] However, he did support the use of the military in 'holy war' to forcibly convert others to his own denomination of Christianity [19] and he died in battle.[20]
From the start of the Reformation some groups, particularly Anabaptists, took the position of pacificism and refused to be part of politics or the military;[21] with followers being executed for this belief.[22]
Conscientious objectors
editIn 1575 Mennonite Christians in the Netherlands whose consciences would not allow them to join the military were exempted from military service if they paid a sum of money to the king.[23][24]
In England, the Militia Act was created in 1757. Militia members were selected by ballot, but Quakers were allowed to pay £10 (approximately £2300 in 2023) to nominate a substitute to take their place. A number of Quakers objected to both these options and were imprisoned;[25] this continued for several decades. In the lead-up to WWI, the Quakers' Yearly Meeting stated "We must continue to offer strenuous opposition to the establishment in any part of the British Empire of a system of compulsory military training.":[25] however, after the war began, about 30% of members enlisted. There were several conscientious objects among the Quakers, including seven who died in England during the war.[25] During the war a No-Conscription Fellowship was set up and by 1916, there was a British conscience clause which allowed conscientious objectors to argue for their non-conscription in front of a tribunal.[26]
In the US, out of 2,100 people who objected to joining the war due to religious reasons, 1890 of them agreed to take on non-combative work, mainly in factories and farms.[23] Figures such as Ben Salmon inspired other Christians to take part in anti-war efforts.[27]
The presence of Christians on both sides led to the unofficial Christmas truces of World War I, commemorated in the film Joyeux Noël.
In the late 20th century, several Christian denominations preached a complete ban on all combatant service, including Seventh-day Adventists,[28] Jehovah's Witnesses[29] and Christadelphians,[30] as well as Anabaptists such as Mennonites and the Amish. This can lead to social pressure and possible arrest, especially during times of war.[31][32]
In 2023, this discussion has come to the fore in both Ukraine and Russia.[33][34][35]
21st century
editMany denominations will see the choice of carrying out military service as being a personal and individual one.[36][37][38] Some churches will ask their members to review the state of their country before agreeing to join its military.[39]
In the last few decades, many Christians have joined military forces in countries around the world. There are a number of support groups which publicly declare their work, including Armed Forces' Christian Union,[40][41] Military Ministries International,[42] Defence Christian Network[43] and Military Christian Fellowship, which has several groups around the world.[44][45][46]
There is an ongoing public debate in Christianity about the place of Christians in the military.[47][48][49][50]
Military chaplains minister to Christians serving in the military forces of many countries.[51][52] Organisations such as the Armed Forces Christian Union (UK) and Officers' Christian Fellowship (US) are made up of Christians in the military. In 2003, Anglicans and Protestants comprised around 35% of the Australian Defence Force while Catholics comprised 25%. By 2020, Anglicans and Protestants comprised 20% of the Force while Catholics comprised 18%.[53]
Religion in The US military
editThe separation of church and state in the US means that legally Christianity does not have a special place in the military.[54]
Most American military members identify as Protestant and Non Denominational Christians.[55] In 2009, the majority of overall US veterans and WWII US veterans were Protestants.[56][57][58]
Religion in the UK military
editIn 2022, 60.% of the UK Regular Forces stated that they had a Christian background.[59] However, earlier statistics suggested that less than 10% of these were practising Christians.[60]
See also
editReferences
edit- ^ Bible Gateway website, Matthew 8:5-13
- ^ a b c Imperium Romanium, Christians against military service in Roman legions
- ^ Sage Journals, The Rejection of Military Service by the Early Christians by Edward A. Ryan
- ^ a b c Ancient Rome Live website, Christians and the Roman Army
- ^ Bible Gateway, Matthew 26 verse 52
- ^ Richard Lim, "Late Antiquity," in The Edinburgh Companion to Ancient Greece and Rome (Edinburgh University Press, 2010), p. 114.
- ^ Kaldellis, Anthony (November 2023). The New Roman Empire: A History of Byzantium. Oxford University Press. pp. 20, 66, 71. ISBN 978-0-19-754935-3.
- ^ John Helgeland, Christians and the Roman Army from Marcus Aurelius to Constantine, in Hildegard Temporini and Wolfgang Haase, Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung, Walter de Gruyter, 1979, ISBN 3-11-007822-8, pp. 724 ff.
- ^ Bible Gateway, Romans 13:4, But if you do wrong, be afraid, for rulers do not bear the sword for no reason. They are God’s servants, agents of wrath to bring punishment on the wrongdoer.
- ^ City of God, 22.6, quoted in Lockwood, Thornton. "Cicero's Philosophy of Just War". PhilArchive. Retrieved 28 July 2023.
- ^ St Johhn The Evangelist Orthodox Church website, Doctrine page, The Orthodox Church’s Teachings on War
- ^ Aquinas, Thomas. Summa Theologica. Christian Classics Ethereal Library. pp. pt. II, sec. 2, q. 40, a. 1.
- ^ Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "Just War"
- ^ The Metropolitan Museum Of Art website, “The Crusades (1095-1291)”
- ^ Smithsonian Magazine website, article by Dan Jones dated July 2018
- ^ Political Theology website, John Calvin and the Logic of Armed Resistance, Pt. 2, dated July 20, 2014
- ^ JStor website, Harold S Bender, The Pacifism of the Sixteenth Century Anabaptists, page 121
- ^ Johns Hopkins University, Renaissance Quarterly, Volume 58, Number 1, Spring 2005
- ^ Encyclopedia.com website, Protestant Christianity Biographies page
- ^ Reformed Forum website
- ^ Third Millennium website, Dr Jack L Arnold The Theology of the Reformers and the Anabaptists
- ^ JStor website, Harold S Bender, The Pacifism of the Sixteenth Century Anabaptists, page 122
- ^ a b Jama Network, article dated May 15, 2018
- ^ Liberty Magazine website, article by Charles Mills, May/June 2017
- ^ a b c Liverpool University Press, 'Our Quaker Dead’: A Forgotten Quaker History, dated January 6, 2019
- ^ Imperial War Museums
- ^ Dear, John (February 23, 2010). "Ben Salmon and the Army of Peace". National Catholic Reporter. Retrieved September 20, 2023.
- ^ Adventists in Uniform
- ^ JW.org official website, FAQ section
- ^ Christadelphian Military Service Committee website
- ^ Quaker Council for European Affairs, 2005 report on The Right To Conscientious Objection in Europe
- ^ War Resistors International website, article on Juma Nazarov
- ^ CNE News website, article dated June 29, 2022
- ^ Religion Unplugged website, article by Felix Corey, dated May 10, 2023
- ^ Forum 18 website, article by Victoria Arnold dated July 21, 2023
- ^ Center On Conscience And War website, Presbyterians
- ^ Center On Conscience And War website, Baptists
- ^ Center On Conscience And War website, Greek Orthodox
- ^ Orthodox Church Of America website
- ^ COBSEO website
- ^ UK Charity Commission website
- ^ Military Ministries International website
- ^ Defence Christian Network website
- ^ MCF Australia website
- ^ MCF Canada
- ^ MCF Singapore website
- ^ Officers’ Christian Fellowship website, article by Lieutenant General William K. Harrison, Jr
- ^ Center for the Study of Bible and Violence website, article by Brandon Hurlbert dated December 7, 2020
- ^ Focus On The Family website, Teens Q&As, Christians and Military Service
- ^ Red Letter Christians website, article by Craig M Watts dated November 6, 2011
- ^ US Air Force website, Careers page
- ^ Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America website
- ^ Hoglin, Phillip (2016-07-01). "Losing Our Religion: The ADF's Chaplaincy Dilemma". Future Forge. Retrieved 2024-10-16.
- ^ Military Times website, article by Karen Jowers dated September 8, 2023
- ^ https://bluestarfam.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/BSF_MFLS_Results2021_ComprehensiveReport_03_14.pdf. Retrieved 2024-10-01.
{{cite web}}: Missing or empty|title=(help) - ^ "First Liberty website, How Religious Is Our Military? Why Faith Continues To Be A Force Multiplier".
- ^ Dreazen, Yochi J. (November 9, 2009). "Wall Street Journal, Muslim Population in the Military Raises Difficult Issues". Wall Street Journal – via www.wsj.com.
- ^ Gaylaw: Challenging the Apartheid of the Closet. Harvard University Press. 30 June 2009. ISBN 9780674036581.
- ^ UK government website, UK armed forces biannual diversity statistics, April 1, 2022
- ^ Vexen website