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The Somali Democratic Republic (Somali: Jamhuuriyadda Dimuqraadiya Soomaaliyeed; Arabic: الجمهورية الديمقراطية الصومالية, al-Jumhūriyyah ad-Dīmuqrāṭiyyah aṣ-Ṣūmāliyyah) was a socialist state in Somalia that existed from 1969 to 1991.
Somali Democratic Republic | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1969–1991 | |||||||||
| Anthem: Soomaaliya Ha Noolaato (Somali) "Somalia will live on" | |||||||||
 | |||||||||
| Capital | Mogadishu | ||||||||
| Official languages | Somali | ||||||||
| Common languages | Somali Arabic English Italian | ||||||||
| Religion | Sunni Islam | ||||||||
| Government | Unitary Marxist–Leninist one-party socialist republic under a totalitarian military dictatorship | ||||||||
| President | |||||||||
• 1969–1991 | Mohammed Siyaad Barrea | ||||||||
| Vice President | |||||||||
• 1976–1991 | Mohamed Ali Samatar | ||||||||
| Historical era | Cold War Arab Cold War | ||||||||
| 21 October 1969 | |||||||||
| 13 July 1977 | |||||||||
| 10 March 1978 | |||||||||
| 26 January 1991 | |||||||||
| Area | |||||||||
| 1972[1] | 637,657 km2 (246,201 sq mi) | ||||||||
| 1977[2] | 957,657 km2 (369,753 sq mi) | ||||||||
| 1991[3] | 637,657 km2 (246,201 sq mi) | ||||||||
| Population | |||||||||
• 1972[1] | 2,941,000 | ||||||||
• 1977[2] | 6,709,161 | ||||||||
| Currency | Somali shilling[4] (SOS) | ||||||||
| Calling code | 252 | ||||||||
| ISO 3166 code | SO | ||||||||
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Established in October 1969, the Somali Democratic Republic emerged as a socialist one-party state following a coup d'état led by Major General Mohamed Siyaad Barre and the Somali military.[5][6][7][8] This coup occurred just six days after the assassination of Abdirashid Shermarke, the second President of the Somali Republic, by a bodyguard.[7] Barre's administration governed Somalia for the next 21 years until the rise of Ethiopian-backed Somali rebel groups, which ultimately led to the government's collapse and the onset of civil war in 1991.[9]
Coup d'etat
editOn 15 October, while President Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke was touring the drought-stricken area of Laascaanood, he was shot and killed by his personal bodyguard. Former U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger concluded that the bodyguard acted independently.[10] President Sharmarke had come to power in 1964 with support from the Soviet Union and other communist states during his election.[11]
On the 21st of October 1969, at 3:00 a.m., General Siyaad and the military overthrew the nine-year-old parliamentary government. Modern political analysts assert that one of the major factors contributing to the coup was the rampant corruption that prevailed at the time.[12]
President Shermarke's bodyguard was tried, tortured, and executed by the Supreme Revolutionary Council. Notably, the assassin shared the same clan background as President Shermarke.[13]
History
editThe Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC), which came to power following President Shermarke's assassination, was led by Lieutenant General Salaad Gabeyre Kediye and Chief of Police Jama Ali Korshel. Kediye held the official title of "Father of the Revolution", and shortly thereafter, Barre became the head of the SRC.[14] The SRC arrested members of the former civilian government, banned political parties,[15] dissolved the parliament and the Supreme Court, and suspended the constitution.[16]
The revolutionary army initiated large-scale public works programs and successfully implemented an urban and rural literacy campaign, significantly increasing the literacy rate. In addition to a nationalization program for industry and land, the new regime's foreign policy emphasized Somalia's traditional and religious ties with the Arab world, leading to its membership in the Arab League (AL) in 1974.[17] That same year, Barre also served as chairperson of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), the predecessor of the African Union (AU).[18]
In July 1976, Barre's SRC disbanded and established the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (SRSP) as a one-party government based on scientific socialism and Islamic principles. The SRSP aimed to reconcile the official state ideology with the official state religion, emphasizing Muslim principles of social progress, equality, and justice. The government argued that these principles formed the core of scientific socialism, along with a focus on self-sufficiency, public participation, popular control, and direct ownership of the means of production. While the SRSP encouraged limited private investment, the administration's overall direction was proclaimed as socialist.[16]
Ogaden campaign
editOn 13 July 1977, the Ogaden War against Ethiopia erupted when Barre's government aimed to annex the predominantly Somali-inhabited Ogaden region into a Pan-Somali Greater Somalia. This conflict was part of a broader SNA initiative to unify all Somali territories, known as Soomaaliweyn. In the first week of the war, the Somali National Army achieved remarkable victories over Ethiopian forces, surprising many American military observers who maintained a neutral stance. Southern and central Ogaden were quickly captured, and throughout much of the conflict, the Somali Army continued to defeat the Ethiopian Army, advancing as far as Sidamo. By September 1977, Somalia controlled 90% of the Ogaden, capturing strategic cities like Jijiga and exerting heavy pressure on Dire Dawa, thereby threatening the train route from that city to Djibouti.
Following the siege of Harar, a massive and unprecedented Soviet intervention occurred, involving 20,000 Cuban troops and several thousand Soviet advisers supporting Ethiopia's communist Derg regime. On 15 March 1978, a ceasefire was negotiated, bringing an end to the war. This shift in Soviet support prompted the Barre government to seek new allies, eventually turning to the United States, which had been courting Somalia for some time as a counter to Soviet influence. Ultimately, Somalia's initial alliance with the Soviet Union and subsequent partnership with the United States enabled it to build the largest army in Africa.[19]
New Constitution
editA new Constitution was ratified on 25 August 1979 through a popular referendum, leading to elections for a People's Assembly. This Constitution established a presidential system, wherein the president served as both the head of state and the head of government. As head of government, the president appointed the members of the Council of Ministers, which he chaired. Initially, the Constitution stipulated that the president would be elected for a six-year renewable term by a two-thirds majority vote of the legislature.[20]
Decline
editAfter the failed Ogaden campaign, Barre's administration began arresting government and military officials suspected of involvement in the 1978 coup attempt.[21][22] Most of those believed to have participated in the plot were executed without trial.[23] However, several officials managed to escape abroad and began forming various dissident groups aimed at forcibly removing Barre's regime.[24]
In 1979, a new constitution was introduced, leading to elections for a People's Assembly. Despite this, Barre's Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (SRSP) continued to maintain control.[6] In October 1980, the SRSP was disbanded, and the Supreme Revolutionary Council was re-established in its place.[16] By this time, Barre's government had become increasingly unpopular, and many Somalis were disillusioned with life under military dictatorship. The regime weakened further in the 80's as the Cold War drew to a close, diminishing Somalia's strategic importance.
The government's totalitarian grip[25][26] culminated in the Isaaq genocide (1987–1988), which devastated several major cities and _targeted members of the Isaaq clan. Civilian death estimates range from 50,000 to 100,000[27][28][29] up to over 200,000.[30] These brutal tactics sparked resistance movements, supported by Ethiopia, that emerged across the country and eventually led to the Somali Civil War. Among these militia groups were the Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF), the United Somali Congress (USC), the Somali National Movement (SNM), and the Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM), alongside non-violent political opposition such as the Somali Democratic Movement (SDM), the Somali Democratic Alliance (SDA) and the Somali Manifesto Group (SMG).[citation needed]
On 26 January 1991, Barre was ousted from power, and Somalia subsequently descended into chaos.[citation needed]
President
edit- Mohamed Siyaad Barre (October 21, 1969 – January 26, 1991)
Prime ministers
edit- Mohamed Farah Salad (November 1, 1969 – March 1970)
- Post abolished (March 1970 – February 1, 1987)
- Muhammad Ali Samatar (February 1, 1987 – September 3, 1990)
- Muhammad Hawadle Madar (September 3, 1990 – January 24, 1991)
References
edit- ^ Census, United States Bureau of the (December 23, 1980). "World Population 1979: Recent Demographic Estimates for the Countries and Regions of the World". The Bureau – via Google Books.
- ^ "ТОТАЛЬНАЯ СОЦИАЛИСТИЧЕСКАЯ ВОЙНА. Недокументальные записки " « Военно-патриотический сайт «Отвага" Военно-патриотический сайт "Отвага"". Archived from the original on 2019-05-09. Retrieved 2009-05-27.
- ^ "The 1991 CIA World Factbook" – via Internet Archive.
- ^ la Fosse Wiles, Peter John de (1982). The New Communist Third World: An Essay in Political Economy. Taylor & Francis. p. 1590. ISBN 0-7099-2709-6.
- ^ J. D. Fage, Roland Anthony Oliver, The Cambridge history of Africa, Volume 8, (Cambridge University Press: 1985), p.478.
- ^ a b The Encyclopedia Americana: complete in thirty volumes. Skin to Sumac, Volume 25, (Grolier: 1995), p.214.
- ^ a b Moshe Y. Sachs, Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations, Volume 2, (Worldmark Press: 1988), p.290.
- ^ Permanent Mission of the Somali Republic to the United Nations. "Country Facts | Somalia". www.un.int. United Nations. Retrieved 5 August 2024.
- ^ Cordesman, Anthony H. (2019). The Gulf And The Search For Strategic Stability. Taylor & Francis. p. 797. ISBN 9781000302066.
- ^ https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/LOC-HAK-510-5-8-1.pdf
- ^ https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP79T00975A010000100001-8.pdf
- ^ L. Daniels, Christopher (2012). Somali Piracy and Terrorism in the Horn of Africa. Scarecrow Press. p. 12. ISBN 9780810883109.
- ^ Adan Sheikh, Mohamed (1991). Arrivederci a Mogadiscio (in Italian). Edizioni associate. p. 76. ISBN 9788826700700.
- ^ Adam, Hussein Mohamed; Richard Ford (1997). Mending rips in the sky: options for Somali communities in the 21st century. Red Sea Press. p. 226. ISBN 1-56902-073-6.
- ^ Metz, Helen C., ed. (1992), "Coup d'Etat", Somalia: A Country Study, Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, retrieved October 21, 2009.
- ^ a b c Peter John de la Fosse Wiles, The New Communist Third World: an essay in political economy, (Taylor & Francis: 1982), p.279.
- ^ Benjamin Frankel, The Cold War, 1945-1991: Leaders and other important figures in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, China, and the Third World (Gale Research: 1992), p.306.
- ^ Oihe Yang, Africa South of the Sahara 2001, 30th Ed. (Taylor and Francis: 2000), p.1025.
- ^ Oliver Ramsbotham, Tom Woodhouse, Encyclopedia of international peacekeeping operations, (ABC-CLIO: 1999), p.222.
- ^ "Somalia". Mongabay.com. Retrieved 2012-09-18.
- ^ ARR: Arab report and record, (Economic Features, ltd.: 1978), p.602.
- ^ Ahmed III, Abdul. "Brothers in Arms Part I" (PDF). WardheerNews. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 3, 2012. Retrieved February 28, 2012.
- ^ New People Media Centre, New people, Issues 94–105, (New People Media Centre: Comboni Missionaries, 2005).
- ^ Nina J. Fitzgerald, Somalia: issues, history, and bibliography, (Nova Publishers: 2002), p.25.
- ^ Prunier, Gérard (1996-01-01). "Somalia: Civil War, Intervention and Withdrawal(1990 - 1995)". Refugee Survey Quarterly. 15 (1): 35–85. doi:10.1093/rsq/15.1.35. ISSN 1020-4067.
- ^ "SOMALIA'S DESCENT TO MOBOCRACY". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2020-09-23.
- ^ Peifer, Douglas C. (2009-05-01). Stopping Mass Killings in Africa: Genocide, Airpower, and Intervention. DIANE Publishing. ISBN 9781437912814.
- ^ Straus, Scott (2015-03-24). Making and Unmaking Nations: The Origins and Dynamics of Genocide in Contemporary Africa. Cornell University Press. ISBN 9780801455674.
- ^ Jones, Adam (2017-01-22). Genocide, war crimes and the West: history and complicity. Zed Books. ISBN 9781842771914.
- ^ Reinl, James (6 February 2014). "Somaliland massacre". www.aljazeera.com.
Further reading
edit- la Fosse Wiles, Peter John de (1982). The New Communist Third World: An Essay in Political Economy. Taylor & Francis. p. 392. ISBN 0-7099-2709-6.