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A supermassive star (SMS) is a hypothetical type of extremely massive and luminous star with its mass being on the order of more than a thousand times the mass of the Sun (M☉).[1][2] Such stars may have existed early in the universe (i.e., at high redshift) and may have produced high-mass black hole seeds like direct collapse black holes (DCBHs).[3]
Description
editAlthough the term "ultramassive star" ("UMS") is rarely used, it has been once used to refer massive stars between 1,000 and 10,000 M☉.[4]
Formation and properties
editThe environmental physical conditions to form a supermassive star are the following:
- Metal-free gas cloud (gas containing only hydrogen and helium).
- Atomic-cooling gas.
- Sufficiently large flux of Lyman–Werner photons, in order to destroy hydrogen molecules, which are very efficient gas coolants.
Depending on models, several studies had predicted that supermassive stars could have evolved "red supergiant protostars" as high accretion rates would prevent stars to contract, resulting lower temperatures and radii reaching up to many tens of thousands of R☉, comparable to some of the largest known black holes.[5] Researchs predicted that metal-rich supermassive stars may have been able to form from merging of metal-rich protogalaxies.[6][7] Such stars would have been significantly larger than the largest modern red supergiant stars (such as VY Canis Majoris and WOH G64) found in the Local Group, which are only typically 1,500 R☉ depending on the solar metallicity.[8][9]
A computer simulation reported in July 2022 showed that a halo at the rare convergence of strong, cold accretion flows can create massive black holes seeds without the need for ultraviolet backgrounds, supersonic streaming motions or even atomic cooling. Cold flows produced turbulence in the halo, which suppressed star formation. In the simulation, no stars formed in the halo until it had grown to 40 million solar masses at a redshift of 25.7 when the halo's gravity was finally able to overcome the turbulence; the halo then collapsed and formed two supermassive stars that died as DCBHs of 31,000 and 40,000 M☉.[10][11]
End of stellar life
editDirect collapse
editA 2018 study proposed a new model for the direct collapse route.[12]
A scenario whereas a DCBH is formed without stellar phase is called "dark collapse".[13]
Alternative scenarios for the fate for a supermassive star have been proposed by various other researches, although this depends directly on the star's properties.
Quasi-star phase
editBar-mode instability
editAlthough thermal emission from a rotating supermassive star will cause the configuration to contract slowly and spin up, the contracting and cooling star may rotate differentially if internal viscosity and magnetic fields are enough weak and will likely encounter the dynamical bar mode instability, which may trigger the growth of nonaxisymmetric bars.[14]
Difference from supermassive nuclear-powered star and dark stars
editSee also
edit- Accretion (astrophysics) – Accumulation of particles into a massive object by gravitationally attracting more matter
- Accretion disk – Structure formed by diffuse material in orbital motion around a massive central body
References
edit- ^ Gieles, Mark; Charbonnel, Corinne (2019). "Supermassive stars as the origin of the multiple populations in globular clusters". Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union. 14: 297–301. arXiv:1908.02075. doi:10.1017/S1743921319007658. S2CID 199452725.
- ^ Pasachoff, Jay M. (2018). "Supermassive star". Access Science. doi:10.1036/1097-8542.669400.
- ^ Haemmerlé, Lionel; Heger, Alexander; Woods, Tyrone E. (2020). "On monolithic supermassive stars". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 494 (2): 2236–2243. arXiv:2003.10467. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa763.
- ^ Zinnecker, Hans; Yorke, Harold W. (2007). "Toward Understanding Massive Star Formation". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. 45 (1): 481–563. arXiv:0707.1279. Bibcode:2007ARA&A..45..481Z. doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.44.051905.092549.
- ^ Haemmerlé, Lionel; Woods, T. E.; Klessen, Ralf S.; Heger, Alexander; Whalen, Daniel J. (2018). "The evolution of supermassive Population III stars". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 474 (2): 2757–2773. arXiv:1705.09301. doi:10.1093/mnras/stx2919.
- ^ Herrington, Nicholas P.; Whalen, Daniel J.; Woods, Tyrone E. (2023). "Modelling supermassive primordial stars with <SCP>mesa</SCP>". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 521: 463–473. doi:10.1093/mnras/stad572.
- ^ Haemmerlé, L.; Klessen, R. S.; Mayer, L.; Zwick, L. (2021). "Maximum accretion rate of supermassive stars". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 652: L7. arXiv:2105.13373. Bibcode:2021A&A...652L...7H. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202141376. S2CID 235247984.
- ^ Levesque, Emily M.; Massey, Philip; Olsen, K. A. G.; Plez, Bertrand; Josselin, Eric; Maeder, Andre; Meynet, Georges (August 2005). "The Effective Temperature Scale of Galactic Red Supergiants: Cool, but Not As Cool As We Thought". The Astrophysical Journal. 628 (2): 973–985. arXiv:astro-ph/0504337. Bibcode:2005ApJ...628..973L. doi:10.1086/430901. ISSN 0004-637X. S2CID 15109583.
- ^ El-Badry, Kareem (22 April 2024). "On the formation of a 33 solar-mass black hole in a low-metallicity binary". The Open Journal of Astrophysics. 7: 38. arXiv:2404.13047. Bibcode:2024OJAp....7E..38E. doi:10.33232/001c.117652.
- ^ "Revealing the origin of the first supermassive black holes". Nature. 6 July 2022. doi:10.1038/d41586-022-01560-y. PMID 35794378.
State-of-the-art computer simulations show that the first supermassive black holes were born in rare, turbulent reservoirs of gas in the primordial Universe without the need for finely tuned, exotic environments — contrary to what has been thought for almost two decades.
- ^ "Scientists discover how first quasars in universe formed". phys.org. Provided by University of Portsmouth. 6 July 2022. Retrieved 2 August 2022.
- ^ Mayer, Lucio; Bonoli, Silvia (2019). "The route to massive black hole formation via merger-driven direct collapse: A review". Reports on Progress in Physics. 82 (1): 016901. arXiv:1803.06391. Bibcode:2019RPPh...82a6901M. doi:10.1088/1361-6633/aad6a5. PMID 30057369. S2CID 51865966.
- ^ Mayer, Lucio; Bonoli, Silvia (2019). "The route to massive black hole formation via merger-driven direct collapse: A review". Reports on Progress in Physics. 82 (1): 016901. arXiv:1803.06391. Bibcode:2019RPPh...82a6901M. doi:10.1088/1361-6633/aad6a5. PMID 30057369.
- ^ New, Kimberly C. B.; Shapiro, Stuart L. (2001). "Evolution of Differentially Rotating Supermassive Stars to the Onset of Bar Instability". The Astrophysical Journal. 548 (1): 439–446. arXiv:astro-ph/0010172. Bibcode:2001ApJ...548..439N. doi:10.1086/318662.
Further reading
edit- Fiacconi, Davide; Rossi, Elena M. (2017). "Light or heavy supermassive black hole seeds: The role of internal rotation in the fate of supermassive stars". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 464 (2): 2259–2269. arXiv:1604.03936. doi:10.1093/mnras/stw2505.
- Hirschi, Raphael (2017). Very Massive and Supermassive Stars: Evolution and Fate. Bibcode:2017hsn..book..567H.
- Haemmerlé, Lionel (2022). "The Rotation of SuperMassive Stars". arXiv:2209.02790 [astro-ph.HE].
- Hirano, Shingo; Machida, Masahiro N.; Basu, Shantanu (2023). "Magnetic Effects Promote Supermassive Star Formation in Metal-enriched Atomic-cooling Halos". The Astrophysical Journal. 952 (1): 56. arXiv:2209.03574. Bibcode:2023ApJ...952...56H. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acda94.
- Becerra, Fernando; Marinacci, Federico; Inayoshi, Kohei; Bromm, Volker; Hernquist, Lars E. (2018). "Opacity Limit for Supermassive Protostars". The Astrophysical Journal. 857 (2): 138. arXiv:1702.03941. Bibcode:2018ApJ...857..138B. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aab8f4.
- Norman, Michael L.; Smith, Britton D.; Bordner, James (2018). "Simulating the Cosmic Dawn with Enzo". Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences. 5: 34. arXiv:1810.03179. Bibcode:2018FrASS...5...34N. doi:10.3389/fspas.2018.00034.
- Regan, John A.; Wise, John H.; o'Shea, Brian W.; Norman, Michael L. (2020). "The emergence of the first star-free atomic cooling haloes in the Universe". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 492 (2): 3021–3031. arXiv:1908.02823. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa035.
- Johnson, Jarrett L. (2013). "Formation of the First Galaxies: Theory and Simulations". The First Galaxies. Astrophysics and Space Science Library. Vol. 396. pp. 177–222. arXiv:1105.5701. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-32362-1_4. ISBN 978-3-642-32361-4.
- Gieles, Mark; Charbonnel, Corinne; Krause, Martin G H.; Hénault-Brunet, Vincent; Agertz, Oscar; Lamers, Henny J G L M.; Bastian, Nathan; Gualandris, Alessia; Zocchi, Alice; Petts, James A. (2018). "Concurrent formation of supermassive stars and globular clusters: Implications for early self-enrichment". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 478 (2): 2461–2479. arXiv:1804.04682. doi:10.1093/mnras/sty1059.
- Haemmerlé, L.; Meynet, G.; Mayer, L.; Klessen, R. S.; Woods, T. E.; Heger, A. (2019). "Maximally accreting supermassive stars: A fundamental limit imposed by hydrostatic equilibrium". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 632: L2. arXiv:1910.04776. Bibcode:2019A&A...632L...2H. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201936716.
- Butler, Satya P.; Lima, Alicia R.; Baumgarte, Thomas W.; Shapiro, Stuart L. (2018). "Maximally rotating supermassive stars at the onset of collapse: The perturbative effects of gas pressure, magnetic fields, dark matter, and dark energy". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 477 (3): 3694–3710. doi:10.1093/mnras/sty834. PMC 6042249. PMID 30008487.
- Shibata, Masaru; Shapiro, Stuart L.; Uryū, Kōji (2001). "Equilibrium and stability of supermassive stars in binary systems". Physical Review D. 64 (2): 024004. arXiv:astro-ph/0104408. Bibcode:2001PhRvD..64b4004S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.64.024004. S2CID 119337836.
- Martins, F.; Schaerer, D.; Haemmerlé, L.; Charbonnel, C. (2020). "Spectral properties and detectability of supermassive stars in protoglobular clusters at high redshift". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 633: A9. arXiv:1911.04763. Bibcode:2020A&A...633A...9M. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201936963.
- Hosokawa, Takashi; Omukai, Kazuyuki; Yorke, Harold W. (2012). "Rapidly Accreting Supergiant Protostars: Embryos of Supermassive Black Holes?". The Astrophysical Journal. 756 (1): 93. arXiv:1203.2613. Bibcode:2012ApJ...756...93H. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/756/1/93.
- Sat\=o, Humitaka (1966). "General Relativistic Instability of Supermassive Stars". Progress of Theoretical Physics. 35 (2): 241–260. Bibcode:1966PThPh..35..241S. doi:10.1143/PTP.35.241.
- Kovetz, A.; Shaviv, G. (1971). "Relativistic evolution of 103 M ⊙ star". Astrophysics and Space Science. 14 (2): 378. Bibcode:1971Ap&SS..14..378K. doi:10.1007/BF00653324. S2CID 122961672.
- Wheeler, J. Craig (1977). "Final evolution of stars in the range 103?104 M ?". Astrophysics and Space Science. 50: 125–131. doi:10.1007/BF00648524. S2CID 119518349.
- Sun, Lunan; Ruiz, Milton; Shapiro, Stuart L. (2018). "Simulating the magnetorotational collapse of supermassive stars: Incorporating gas pressure perturbations and different rotation profiles". Physical Review D. 98 (10): 103008. arXiv:1807.07970. Bibcode:2018PhRvD..98j3008S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.98.103008. PMC 8477203. PMID 34589637.
- Nowak, Katarzyna (2022). "Accretion Disc Structure of Supermassive Stars Formed by Collisions". doi:10.18745/th.25489.
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(help) - Omukai, Kazuyuki; Chon, Sunmyon (2020). "Supermassive star formation via super competitive accretion in slightly metal-enriched clouds". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 494 (2): 2851–2860. arXiv:2001.06491. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa863.
- Sakurai, Y.; Hosokawa, T.; Yoshida, N.; Yorke, H. W. (2015). "Formation of primordial supermassive stars by burst accretion". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 452: 755–764. arXiv:1505.03954. doi:10.1093/mnras/stv1346.
- Nagele, Chris; Umeda, Hideyuki; Takahashi, Koh; Yoshida, Takashi; Sumiyoshi, Kohsuke (2022). "Stability analysis of supermassive primordial stars: A new mass range for general relativistic instability supernovae". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 517 (2): 1584–1600. arXiv:2205.10493. doi:10.1093/mnras/stac2495.
- Nagele, Chris; Umeda, Hideyuki; Takahashi, Koh; Maeda, Keiichi (2023). "Pulsations of primordial supermassive stars induced by a general relativistic instability; visible to JWST at z > 12". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters. 520: L72–L77. arXiv:2210.08662. doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slad009.
External links
edit- "Do Supermassive Black Holes Come from Supermassive Stars?". 16 March 2021.
- "Massive stars in the early universe may have been progenitors of super-massive black holes".
- "Supermassive Stars discovered !? -- Celestial monsters at the origin of globular clusters - Starbursts in the Universe - UNIGE". 19 May 2023.
- "Cosmic monsters found lurking at heart of ancient star clusters by the James Webb Space Telescope". Space.com. 16 May 2023.
- https://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Sept15/Johnson/Johnson1.html.
{{cite web}}
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