Wikipedia

Gender inequality in Mexico

Gender inequality in Mexico refers to disparate freedoms in health, education, and economic and political abilities between men and women in Mexico.[2][1] It has been diminishing throughout history, but continues to persist in many forms including the disparity in women's political representation and participation, the gender pay gap, and high rates of domestic violence and femicide. As of 2022, the World Economic Forum ranks Mexico 31st in terms of gender equality out of 146 countries.[3] Structural gender inequality is relatively homogeneous between the Mexican states as there are very few regional differences in the inequalities present.[4]

The Gender gap index for Mexico compared to other countries. Gender gap index is one of many multi-dimensional measures of gender inequality. Mexico was scored at 0.69 by World Economic Forum, and ranked 68 out of 136 countries in 2013.[1]

Gender statistics

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The following table compares the population wide data for two genders on various inequality statistical measures, according to the most recent data available from The World Bank's Gender Statistics database.[5] Unemployment statistics are calculated based on the International Labour Organization (or ILO)'s method of calculation.

Gender Statistic Measure[5] Females (Mexico) Males (Mexico) Total (Mexico) Females (Latin America)[nb 1] Males (Latin America) Total (Latin America) Females (World) Males (World) Total (World)
Infant mortality rate (per 1,000 live births) in 2020 10.6 12.9 11.8 12.3 15.3 13.8 25.2 29.5 27.4
Life expectancy at birth (years) in 2020 74.3 66.3 70.1 76.60 69.67 73.04 74.88 69.82 72.27
Expected years of schooling in 2020 15.1 14.3 14.7 15.27 14.34 14.80 12.50 12.50 12.50
Primary completion rate (% of relevant age group) in 2020 103.7 101.6 102.7 99.91 98.82 99.35 90.13 90.68 90.41
Primary education, teachers (%) in 2020 69.4 30.6 100.0 77.98 22.02 100.0 67.28 32.72 100.0
Lower secondary completion rate (%) in 2020 92.6 88.5 90.5 82.92 77.86 80.35 77.98 76.99 77.47
Secondary education, pupils (%) in 2017 51.1 48.9 100.0 50.14 49.86 100.0 47.95 52.05 100.0
Secondary education, teachers (%) in 2020 51.7 48.3 100.0 57.29 42.71 100.0 54.15 45.85 100.0
Account ownership at a financial institution, (% age 15+) in 2017 33.3 41.1 36.9 52.03 58.59 55.14 64.85 72.27 68.52
Unemployment, (% of that gender's labor force, modeled ILO estimate) in 2021 4.2 4.5 4.4 12.31 8.36 10.00 6.36 6.06 6.18
Unemployment, youth (% of labor force ages 15–24, modeled ILO estimate) in 2021 8.6 7.9 8.1 25.83 18.25 21.37 19.71 17.34 17.93
Ratio of female to male youth unemployment rate (% ages 15–24, modeled ILO estimate) in 2021 108.6 138.57 114.33
Employment in agriculture, (% of employment of that gender) in 2019 3.6 17.9 12.5 7.09 17.99 20.32 25.41 27.63 26.74
Employment in industry, (% of employment of that gender) in 2019 17.1 30.7 25.5 11.69 26.32 20.32 15.53 27.24 22.67
Employment in services, (% of employment of that gender) in 2019 79.3 51.5 62.0 81.22 55.69 66.18 59.06 45.13 50.59
Self-employed, (% of employment of that gender) in 2019 32.8 31.4 32.0 36.47 38.78 37.84 45.51 47.01 46.44
Cause of death, by non-communicable diseases, ages 15–59, (%) in 2019 81.3 58.2 65.9 75.33 51.03 59.31 65.88 61.02 62.83
Fertility rate, total (births per woman) in 2020 1.9 1.88 2.30
Literacy rate, adults (% of that gender ages 15 and above) in 2020 94.5 96.1 95.2 93.72 94.54 94.11 83.46 90.16 86.81
Literacy rate, youth (% of that gender ages 15–24) in 2020 99.2 99.0 99.1 98.69 98.33 98.52 90.55 92.99 91.81
Maternal mortality ratio (per 100,000 live births) in 2017 33.0 74.00 211.00
Sex ratio at birth (male births per female births) in 2020 1.039 1.044 1.059
Seats held in national parliaments (%) 48.2 51.8 100.0 32.76 67.24 100.0 25.58 74.42 100.0

Global rankings

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Various groups have ranked gender inequalities around the world. For example, the World Economic Forum publishes a Global Gender Gap Index score for each nation every year. The index focuses not on empowerment of women, but on the relative gap between men and women in four fundamental categories – economic participation, educational attainment, health and survival, and political empowerment.[6] It includes measures such as estimated sex selective abortion, number of years the nation had a female head of state, female to male literacy rate, estimated income ratio of female to male in the nation, and several other relative gender statistic measures. It does not include factors such as crime rates against women versus men, domestic violence, honor killings or such factors. Where data is unavailable or difficult to collect, World Economic Forum uses old data or makes a best estimate to calculate the nation's Global Gap Index (GGI).[6]

According to the World Economic Forum's Gender Gap Index (GGI) for 2022, Mexico was ranked 31st out of 146 countries for gender equality. It was ranked 113th in economic participation and opportunity, 60th in educational attainment, 15th in political empowerment, and 54th in health and survival.[3]

The purpose of the Human Development Report is to change the focus of development economics and encourage countries to focus more on the individual development of all its people and less on national income and gross domestic product.[7] The Human Development Report determines which capabilities are most important in its ranking system by considering whether they are universally valued by large groups of people and whether they are basic, and would therefore hinder the realization of other capabilities.[8] The index tries to put forth a more gender-sensitive public policy agenda by including gender equality and specific types of discrimination that affect the lives of women in developing countries as main focuses.[8]

The United Nations' Gender Inequality Index (part of the Human Development Report) for 2016 had Mexico ranked 77th out of 188 countries for gender equality.[9] Mexico's ranking on this index had gone down from its 2013 rank of 66th. This rank had gone up from its rank in 2012, which was 72nd.[10] This is an improvement from its ranking in 2010, when it ranked 68th out of 169 countries.[11]

Economic inequalities

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Labor participation

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As of 1995, women made up only 29% of Mexico's economically active population and 23% of the wage earning economically active population.[12] Since the 1990s, the number of women in the Mexican workforce has greatly increased while men's participation in the workforce has decreased.[13] The actual percentages of employed versus unemployed women averages about 30-35%, while the percentage of employed men averages around 70%.[13]

In addition, according to a study conducted by Margarita Valdés, 6% of those women in the workforce are either employed in the informal sector where they do not have a fixed salary or in the home-based industries sector where they receive no salary.[12] More women are employed performing unpaid yet socially important and vital jobs than are men.[14]

 
A Maya woman, souvenir maker.

Many women work in maquiladoras, or export-based manufacturing operations. The maquiladora labor force is largely made up of women, even though women went from making up 80% of the labor force in the 1980s to only 58.8% by 2006. However, this does vary by region.[15][16] Due to the declination of wages in the export manufacturing sector over time, maquila industry salaries do not cover the basic basket needs of their workers.[17][18]

Because these salaries are insufficient, workers often find it necessary to supplement them with informal work.[19] Maquiladoras also frequently use pregnancy tests in order to ensure they do not hire pregnant women. This fear tactic is also often used to frighten hired workers to not get pregnant in order to retain their employment.[16] In addition, according to a 2004 study by Alex Covarrubias and Gabriela Grijalva that took place in Sonora (northern Mexico), twenty percent of maquiladora workers had been victims of sexual harassment by male co-workers, supervisors, and managers.[20]

Another study found that in professional and technical occupations, there are about 65 women to every 100 men.[4] This study also found that the greatest economic gender inequality exists in business ownership, with 17 businesses owned by women to every 100 businesses owned by men.[4]

Even though the rural laborer gender ratio is about equal, employment rates for women in the Mexican rural labor market are much lower than those of men.[13] Studies also suggests that many women in rural communities feel that formal paid labor outside the home directly conflicts with the traditional role of women as homemakers.[21]

Occupational segregation by gender

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Main article: Occupational segregation

Occupational gender segregation takes the form of both horizontal segregation- the unequal gender distribution across occupations- and vertical segregation- the overrepresentation of men in higher positions in both traditionally male and traditionally female fields.[22]

While occupational segregation exists in Mexico, segregation decreased between 1987 and 1993 from an occupational segregation index score of 26.6 to 23.5.[23] This means that 23.5% of women or 76.5% of men would have to move to different career field in order for all occupations to have equal gender composition.[citation needed]

Pay gap

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Main article: Gender pay gap

While the disparity between male and female wages decreased from the 1980s to the early 1990s, the gap began to increase again in 1996 following the Mexican economic crisis. According to the International Trade Union Confederation, the overall wage gap in Mexico as of 2008 is 17.4%.[24] The gap varies by occupation; female teachers in Mexico make 91.2% of the salary of male teachers, while female industrial supervisors make only 66.9% of the wages earned by their male counterparts.[14]

Education inequalities

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As of 2012, the World Economic Forum ranks Mexico 69th out of 135 countries in terms of gender equality in education attainment.[3] Mexico also ranks 75th in equality in literacy rates, tied for first (at parity) in equality in primary and secondary education enrollment, and 98th in equality in tertiary education enrollment.[3] This disparity is more prevalent for girls in low-income families, as these children are more likely to participate in domestic activities in the home rather than attend school.[25]

A study conducted by Sonia Frias found that in many Mexican states, the number of average years of education is at parity for men and women and literacy rates are nearly equal (100 literate men to 98 literate women); the gap, however, increases in college and graduate education, with 78 and 54 women to 100 men respectively.[4] This study also found that there were only 31 women to every 100 men in STEM fields of education.[4] In addition, as of 1995, 15% of the female population of Mexico is illiterate.[12]

Mexico is one of the few countries where the government has taken sexual stereotypes out of textbooks.[26]

A study of young children in Mexico came to the conclusion that because the young girls tend to be doing work in the home that is not considered a part of the formal labor force, they are not protected by government policies designed to protect their education. Policies and projects like these are usually conducted and focus on youth with formal employers, so many young girls are unable to attend school or even be contacted by the government to ensure that they are receiving an education because they are completing housework in their homes.[27][28][29]

Mexico is also one of only three OECD countries, the others being Switzerland and Turkey, where more men than women have obtained a tertiary education.[30]

Health inequalities

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Abortion

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See also: Abortion in Mexico

Since 2008, 16 of the 32 states have made abortion illegal. However, the Supreme Court has upheld the constitutionality of laws permitting abortion until the 12th week of pregnancy. The only case where the federal government mandates access to abortion and emergency contraception is in the case of rape. However, many women face barriers to receiving this care including: inaccurate information, undue delays, and intimidation by officials.[31]

Studies also show that many Mexicans do not know accurate information about the legality of abortion in their country; often, they believe that abortion is not legal under any circumstance and thus do not know how to receive a safe abortion should they need one. The lack of access to safe and legal abortions leads to complications from unsafe abortions, which is estimated by the World Health Organization to be either the third or fourth highest cause of maternal mortality.[32][33][34]

Gender-based violence

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See also: Violence against women in Mexico, Female homicides in Ciudad Juárez, and Human trafficking in Mexico

Mexico has the 16th highest rate of homicides committed against women, also known as femicide, in the world. This rate has been on the rise since 2007.[35] In addition, the state of Mexico has one of the highest rates of domestic violence at 53%.[35] Femicide and gender violence is also more prevalent in regions along the Mexico-US border and in areas of high drug trading activity and drug violence.[36]

According to the 2013 Human Rights Watch, many women do not seek out legal redress after being victims of domestic violence and sexual assault because "the severity of punishments for some sexual offenses contingent on the "chastity" of the victim" and "those who do report them are generally met with suspicion, apathy, and disrespect."[31]

According to a 1997 study by Kaja Finkler, domestic abuse "is embedded in gender and marital relations fostered in Mexican women's dependence on their spouses for subsistence and for self-esteem, sustained by ideologies of romantic love, by family structure and residential arrangements."[37] A study released in March, 2018, found that 40.6% of employed women in Mexico City had reported some form of work-related disruption due to domestic violence.[38]

The exploitation through sex trafficking and forced prostitution increases the risk that a woman in Mexico will experience gender-based violence. It is thought that about 400 women enter into prostitution in Mexico City every day, and that eighty percent of those women are entering into prostitution against their will.[39] A study by Arun Kumar Acharya suggests that because of sex trafficking victims' inability to protect themselves from forced, unprotected sex at the threat of violence by madams, pimps, and others in power positions over them, sex trafficking victims are the most vulnerable to gender-based violence.[40]

STDs

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In poorer regions of Mexico with large indigenous communities also experience high levels of STDs and health problems; for example, at least 778 women in the state of Oaxaca, one-third of the population of which is indigenous, died during pregnancy, childbirth or postpartum between 1995 and 2004.[41]

Sexual health and STDs are also big issues faced by those who have been forcibly entered into prostitution and sex trafficking. This is usually because sex trafficking and forced prostitution victims are unable to consistently negotiate condom use with their male partners at the threat of violence, which leads to an increase in HIV/AIDS and other STD exposure. This has also contributed to the stigmatization of these women as carriers of HIV/AIDS and STDs.[40]

Political inequalities

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Political participation

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In virtually every level of the Mexican government, women are underrepresented in comparison to the general population.[4] Mexico has had very few female cabinet members throughout its history, and has never had a female head of state.[14] According to a 1998 study, women held only 14.2 percent of parliamentary seats in Mexico, putting it behind most developed countries (with the exception of the United States) in female representation.[42]

A 2004 study suggests that girls in Mexico think political participation is as important as boys do, but because of their socialized belief that politics is a masculine career field, these children do not intend to seek a career in politics.[43]

Social life

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Researcher Margarita Valdés noted that while there are few inequalities enforced by law or policy in Mexico, there are gender inequalities perpetuated by social structures and expectations that limit the capabilities of Mexican women; these inequalities are largely maintained by local patriarchal social structures that deny women the possibility of functioning in many different areas.[12]

Government policies

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Mexico's Supreme Court declared marital rape illegal in November 2005.[44] The Mexican government adopted the General Act on Equality between Women and Men which was intended to establish a connect between the federal and the state level in the creation of policies and legal provisions in relation to gender equality in 2006.[45]

The government social welfare program Oportunidades provides more assistance to families with daughters in order to create more incentives for their families to send them to school.[30] Mexico has also earmarked funds, as of 2010, in order to "incorporate the gender dimension in educational programmes and initiatives."[30]

However, according to Rupert Knox, researcher on Mexico at Amnesty International, "In the past years, Mexico has approved a number of laws and institutions designed to protect women from discrimination and violence. Much of the problem, however, lies in the lack of effective implementation of these laws and the weakness of the institutions."[46]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ This group draws from the World Bank's "Latin America & Caribbean" aggregate, labeled as "Latin America" for brevity.

References

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  1. ^ a b The Global Gender Gap Report 2013, World Economic Forum, Switzerland
  2. ^ Robeyns, Ingrid (January 2011). "Sen's Capability Approach and Gender Inequality: Selecting Relevant Capabilities". Feminist Economics. 9 (2–3): 61–92. doi:10.1080/1354570022000078024. S2CID 15946768.
  3. ^ a b c d "Global Gender Gap Report" (PDF). World Economic Forum, Geneva, Switzerland. 2022. Retrieved 2023-02-01.
  4. ^ a b c d e f Frias, Sonia M. (2008). "Measuring Structural Gender Equality in Mexico: A State Level Analysis". Social Indicators Research. 88 (2): 215–246. doi:10.1007/s11205-007-9193-4. S2CID 144519507.
  5. ^ a b "Gender Statistics | DataBank". databank.worldbank.org. Retrieved 2023-02-01.
  6. ^ a b "Global Gender Gap Report 2013". World Economic Forum. Archived from the original on 31 March 2014. Retrieved 31 March 2014.
  7. ^ Haq, Mahbub ul. 1995. Reflections on Human Development. New York: Oxford University Press.
  8. ^ a b Fukuda-Parr, Sakiko (2003-01-01). "The Human Development Paradigm: Operationalizing Sen's Ideas on Capabilities". Feminist Economics. 9 (2–3): 301–317. doi:10.1080/1354570022000077980. ISSN 1354-5701. S2CID 18178004.
  9. ^ "| Human Development Reports". hdr.undp.org. Retrieved 2017-10-20.
  10. ^ United Nations Development Programme. "Human Development Report 2013" (PDF). Retrieved 12 March 2014.
  11. ^ The Catalist. "Mexico Making Progress in Gender Equality". Archived from the original on 5 June 2019. Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  12. ^ a b c d Valdés, Margarita M. (1995). Nussbaum M. e Glover J. (ed.). Inequality in capabilities between men and women in Mexico. pp. 426–433.
  13. ^ a b c Pagan, Jose A.; Sanchez, Susana M. (April 2000). "Gender Differences in Labor Market Decisions: Evidence from Rural Mexico". Economic Development and Cultural Change. 48 (3): 619–637. doi:10.1086/452612. S2CID 155063457.
  14. ^ a b c Rhoda, Richard and Tony Burton. "Female quality of life in Mexico". MexConnect. Retrieved 4 November 2013.
  15. ^ Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI). 2007. Industria maquiladora de exportación. Aguascalientes, México: INEGI.
  16. ^ a b Domínguez, Edmé; Icaza, Rosalba; Quintero, Cirila; López, Silvia; Stenman, Åsa (2010-10-01). "Women Workers in the Maquiladoras and the Debate on Global Labor Standards". Feminist Economics. 16 (4): 185–209. doi:10.1080/13545701.2010.530603. ISSN 1354-5701. S2CID 154778338.
  17. ^ Rosenbaum, Ruth. 2001. Making the Invisible Visible: A Study of Purchasing Power of Maquila Workers in México – 2000. Hartford, CT: Center for Reflection, Education and Action (CREA).
  18. ^ Fussell, Elizabeth. 2000. ‘‘Making Labor Flexible: The Recomposition of Tijuana’s Maquiladora Female Labor Force.’’ Feminist Economics 6(3): 59–79.
  19. ^ Informe. 2005. ‘‘Situación de los derechos humanos en las maquilas de Ame ́rica Central’’ [The human rights situation in the Central American maquilas]. Report 428/3, Federación Internacional de los Derechos Humanos.
  20. ^ Covarrubias, Alex and Gabriela Grijalva. 2004. ‘‘Trabajo, salud y ciudadanía de las trabajadoras de la IME en Sonora’’ [Work, health, and citizenship of women workers at IME in Sonora], in Gabriela Grijalva and Alex Covarrubias, eds. Las mujeres en la maquila: Trabajo, instituciones de apoyo y organizacio ́n sindical [Women in the maquila: work, support institutions, and trade union organizing], pp. 21–90. Hermosillo: El Colegio de Sonora/Instituto Sonorense de la Mujer.
  21. ^ Beutelspacher, Austreberta Nazar; Martelo, Emma Zapata; GarcÍa, VerÓnica Vázquez (2003-01-01). "Does Contraception Benefit Women? Structure, Agency, and Well-Being in Rural Mexico". Feminist Economics. 9 (2–3): 213–238. doi:10.1080/1354570022000077971. ISSN 1354-5701. S2CID 2031556.
  22. ^ Charles, Maria (December 2003). "Deciphering Sex Segregation: Vertical and Horizontal Inequalities in Ten National Labor Markets". Acta Sociologica. No. 4. 46 (4): 267–287. doi:10.1177/0001699303464001. S2CID 220174984.
  23. ^ Brown, Cynthia J.; Pagan, Jose A.; Rodriguez-Oreggia, Eduardo (October 1999). "Occupational Attainment and Gender Earnings Differentials in Mexico". Industrial and Labor Relations Review. 53 (1): 123–135. doi:10.2307/2696165. JSTOR 2696165.
  24. ^ Tijdens, K.G., Van Klaveren, M. "Frozen in time: Gender pay gap unchanged for 10 years" (PDF). International Trade Union Confederation. Retrieved 4 November 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  25. ^ POST, D. (1 June 2001). "REGION, POVERTY, SIBSHIP, AND GENDER INEQUALITY IN MEXICAN EDUCATION: Will _targeted Welfare Policy Make a Difference for Girls?". Gender & Society. 15 (3): 468–489. doi:10.1177/089124301015003008. S2CID 145599866.
  26. ^ Stromquist, Nelly P. (1990). "Gender Inequality in Education: Accounting for Women's Subordination". British Journal of Sociology of Education. 11 (2): 137–153. doi:10.1080/0142569900110202.
  27. ^ Levison, Deborah; Moe, Karine S; Knaul, Felicia Marie (2001). "Youth Education and Work in Mexico". World Development. 29 (1): 167–188. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.541.1185. doi:10.1016/s0305-750x(00)00090-5.
  28. ^ Burra, N. (1989). Out of sight out of mind: working girls in India. International Labour Review, 128(5), 651± 660.
  29. ^ Black, M. (1993). Street and working children. Florence, Italy: UNICEF.
  30. ^ a b c OECD. "Meeting of the OECD Council at Ministerial Level Paris, 25-26 May 2011" (PDF). Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  31. ^ a b Human Rights Watch (2013-01-31). World Report 2013: Mexico. Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  32. ^ CONAPO. Cuadernos de salud reproductiva — República Mexicana. México DF7 CONAPO, 2000.
  33. ^ WHO. Abortion: A Tabulation of Available Data on the Frequency and Mortality of Maternal Health and Unsafe Abortion. Geneva7 WHO, 1994.
  34. ^ Garcáa, Sandra G.; Tatum, Carrie; Becker, Davida; Swanson, Karen A.; Lockwood, Karin (2004-01-01). "Policy Implications of a National Public Opinion Survey on Abortion in Mexico". Reproductive Health Matters. 12 (sup24): 65–74. doi:10.1016/s0968-8080(04)24003-4. ISSN 0968-8080. PMID 15938159. S2CID 40327114.
  35. ^ a b "Femicide and Impunity in Mexico: A context of structural and generalized violence" (PDF). Retrieved 12 March 2014.
  36. ^ Wright, Melissa W. (March 2011). "Necropolitics, Narcopolitics, and Femicide: Gendered Violence on the Mexico-U.S. Border". Signs. 36 (3): 707–731. doi:10.1086/657496. JSTOR 10.1086/657496. PMID 21919274. S2CID 23461864.
  37. ^ Finkler, Kaja (1997). "Gender, domestic violence and sickness in Mexico". Social Science & Medicine. 45 (8): 1147–1160. doi:10.1016/s0277-9536(97)00023-3. PMID 9381229.
  38. ^ Gupta, Jhumka (2018). "Intimate partner violence against low-income women in Mexico City and associations with work-related disruptions". Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health. 72 (7): 605–610. doi:10.1136/jech-2017-209681. PMC 6031258. PMID 29514921.
  39. ^ González, Ramón. (2003) ‘Violencia contra las mujeres deja un millón de víctimas anuales en México,’ (Violence against Women Generates One Million Victims Yearly in Mexico), Comunicación e Información de la Mujer (CIMAC) (Communication and Information on Woman) México.
  40. ^ a b Acharya, Arun Kumar (2008-03-01). "Sexual Violence and Proximate Risks". Gender, Technology and Development. 12 (1): 77–99. doi:10.1177/097185240701200106. S2CID 146169775.
  41. ^ Loewenberg, Samuel (March 23, 2010). "Mexico: Ethnic and Gender Inequalities". The Pulitzer Center. Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  42. ^ Kenworthy, L.; Malami, M. (1 September 1999). "Gender Inequality in Political Representation: A Worldwide Comparative Analysis". Social Forces. 78 (1): 235–268. doi:10.1093/sf/78.1.235.
  43. ^ Mayer, Jeremy D; Schmidt, Heather M (2004). "Gendered political socialization in four contexts: political interest and values among junior high school students in China, Japan, Mexico, and the United States". The Social Science Journal. 41 (3): 393–407. doi:10.1016/j.soscij.2004.04.024. S2CID 144881101.
  44. ^ BARCLAY, ELIZA (November 26, 2005). "Women's advocates make gains in Mexico". Houston Chronicle. Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  45. ^ Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women. "Concluding comments of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women: Mexico" (PDF). Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  46. ^ Trimel, Suzanne (July 12, 2012). "State of Women's Rights in Mexico 'Alarming,' Authorities Urged to Stop Escalating Violence Against Women". Amnesty International. Retrieved 6 April 2014.
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