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Janapada

For the film, see Janapada (film).

The Janapadas (lit. 'Foothold of the people') (pronounced [dʑɐnɐpɐdɐ]) (c. 1100–600 BCE) were the realms, republics (ganapada) and kingdoms (sāmarājya) of the Vedic period in the Indian subcontinent. The Vedic period reaches from the late Bronze Age into the Iron Age: from about 1500 BCE to the 6th century BCE. With the rise of sixteen Mahajanapadas ("great janapadas"), most of the states were annexed by more powerful neighbours, although some remained independent.[1]

Late Vedic era map showing the boundaries of Āryāvarta with Janapadas in northern India. Beginning of Iron Age kingdoms in India— Kuru, Panchala, Kosala, Videha.
Locations of kingdoms and republics mentioned in the Indian epics or Bharata Khanda.

Etymology

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The Sanskrit term janapada is a tatpurusha compound term, composed of two words: jana and padna. Jana means "go" or "do your business" (cf. Latin cognate genus, English cognate kin). The word pada means "foot" (cf. Latin cognate pedis);[2][3] from its earliest attestation, the word has had a double meaning of "realm, territory" and "subject population" (cf. Hittite pedan, "place"). Linguist George Dunkel compares the Greek andrapodon "slave", to PIE *pédom "fetters" (i.e. "what is attached to the feet"). Sanskrit padám, usually taken to mean "footprint, trail", diverges in accent from the PIE reconstruction. For the sense of "population of the land", padasya janas, the inverted padajana would be expected. A primary meaning of "place of the people", janasya padam, would not explain why the compound is of masculine gender. An original dvandva "land and people" is conceivable, but a dual inflection would be expected.[4]

History and evolution

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Modern replica of utensils and falcon shaped altar used for Agnicayana, an elaborate srauta ritual originating from the Kuru kingdom,[5] around 1000 BCE.

Literary evidence suggests that the janapadas flourished between 1100 BCE and 500 BCE. The earliest mention of the term "janapada" occurs in the Aitareya (8.14.4) and Shatapatha (13.4.2.17) Brahmana texts.[6]

In the Vedic samhitas, the term jana denotes a tribe, whose members believed in a shared ancestry.[7] The janas were headed by a king (raja). The council (samiti) was a common assembly of the jana members, and had the power to elect or dethrone the king. The sabha was a smaller assembly of wise elders, who advised the king.[8]

The janas were originally semi-nomadic pastoral communities, but gradually came to be associated with specific territories as they became less mobile. Various kulas (clans) developed within the jana, each with its own chief. Gradually, the necessities of defence and warfare prompted the janas to form military groupings headed by janapadins (Kshatriya warriors). This model ultimately evolved into the establishment of political units known as the janapadas.[9]

While some of the janas evolved into their own janapadas, others appear to have mixed together to form a common Janapada. According to the political scientist Sudama Misra, the name of the Panchala janapada suggests that it was a fusion of five (pancha) janas.[10] Some janas (such as Aja and Mutiba) mentioned in the earliest texts do not find a mention in the later texts. Misra theorizes that these smaller janas were conquered by and assimilated into the larger janas.[10]

Janapadas were gradually dissolved around 500 BCE. Their disestablishment can be attributed to the rise of imperial powers (such as Magadha) in Northern India, as well as foreign invasions (such as those by the Persians and the Greeks) in the north-western South Asia.[11]

Nature

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The Janapada were highest political unit in Northern India during this period; these polities were usually monarchical (though some followed a form of republicanism) and succession was hereditary. The head of a kingdom was a king (raja). A chief priest (purohita) and a commander of the army (senani) who would assist the king. There were also two other political bodies: the (samiti), thought to be a council of elders and the sabhā, a general assembly of the entire people.[12]

The boundaries of the kingdoms

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Often rivers formed the boundaries of two neighboring kingdoms, as was the case between the northern and southern Panchala and between the western (Pandava's kingdom) and eastern (Kaurava's kingdom) Kuru. Sometimes, large forests, which were larger than the kingdoms themselves, formed their boundaries as was the case of Naimisha Forest, the Naimisha Aranyam between Panchala and Kosala kingdoms. Mountain ranges like Himalaya, Vindhyachal and Sahyadri also formed their boundaries.

The cities and villages

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Ahichchhatra (or Ahi-Kshetra) was the ancient capital of Northern Panchala. The remains of this city has been discovered in Bareilly.

Some kingdoms possessed a main city that served as its capital. For example, the capital of Pandava's kingdom was Indraprastha and the Kaurava's kingdom was Hastinapura. Ahichatra was the capital of Northern Panchala whereas Kampilya was the capital of Southern Panchala. Kosala had its capital at Ayodhya. Apart from the main city or capital, where the palace of the ruling king was situated, there were small towns and villages spread throughout the kingdom, from which tax was collected by officers appointed by the king. What the king offered in return was protection from attack by other kings and bandit tribes, as well as from invading foreign nomadic tribes. The king also enforced law and order in his kingdom by punishing the guilty.[13][14]

Administration

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A Kuru coin, earliest example of coinage in India.[15]

The Janapadas had Kshatriya rulers.[16] Based on literary references, historians have theorized that the Janapadas were administered by the following assemblies in addition to the king:

Sabha (Council)
An assembly more akin to a council of qualified members or elders (mostly men) who advised the king and performed judicial functions. In the ganas or republican Janapadas called Gaṇasaṅgha with no kings, the council of elders also handled administration.[1]
Paura Sabha (Executive Council)
The Paura Sabha was the assembly of the capital city (pura), and handled municipal administration.[17]
Samiti (General Assembly)
A samiti generally consisted of all adults of the republic or the city-state. A samiti was congregated when a matter of importance had to be communicated to the entire city-state. A samiti was also held at the time of festivals to plan, raise revenue and conduct the celebrations.
Janapada
The Janapada assembly represented the rest of the Janapada, possibly the villages, which were administered by a gramini,[17] or grāmaṇī.[18]

Some historians have also theorized that there was a common assembly called the "Paura-Janapada", but others such as Ram Sharan Sharma disagree with this theory. The existence of Paura and Janapada itself is a controversial matter.[19]

Indian nationalist historians such as K. P. Jayaswal have argued that the existence of such assemblies is evidence of prevalence of democracy in ancient India.[20] V. B. Misra notes that the contemporary society was divided into the four varnas (besides the avarna or outcastes), and the Kshatriya ruling class had all the political rights.[21] Not all the citizens in a janapada had political rights.[1] Based on Gautama's Dharmasutra, Jayaswal theorized that the low-caste shudras could be members of the Paura assembly.[19] According to A. S. Altekar, this theory is based on a misunderstanding of the text: the term "Paura" in the relevant portion of the Dharmasutra refers to a resident of the city, not a member of the city assembly.[22] Jayaswal also argued that the members of the supposed Paura-Janapada assembly acted as counselors to the king, and made other important decisions such as imposing taxes in times of emergency. Once again, Altekar argued that these conclusions are based on misinterpretations of the literary evidence. For example, Jayaswal has wrongly translated the word "amantra" in a Ramayana verse as "to offer advice"; it actually means "to bid farewell" in proper context.[22]

Interactions between kingdoms

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Janapada weaponry
Ancient Indian Antennae sword; Metalwork, 1800–1500 BCE [23]
Ancient Indian Ax Blade, 1800–1500 BCE[24]

There was no border security for a kingdom and border disputes were very rare. One king might conduct a military campaign (often designated as Digvijaya meaning conquest of the four directions) and defeat another king in a battle, lasting for a day.[25] The defeated king would acknowledge the supremacy of the victorious king. The defeated king might sometimes be asked to give a tribute to the victorious king. Such tribute would be collected only once, not on a periodic basis. The defeated king, in most cases, would be free to rule his own kingdom, without maintaining any contact with the victorious king. There was no annexation of one kingdom by another. Often a military general (senapati) conducted these campaigns on behalf of his king. A military campaign and tribute collection was often associated with a great sacrifice (like Rajasuya or Ashvamedha) conducted in the kingdom of the campaigning king. The defeated king also was invited to attend these sacrifice ceremonies, as a friend and ally.[26]

New kingdoms

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New kingdoms were formed when a major clan produced more than one king in a generation. The Kuru clan of Kings was very successful in governing throughout North India with their numerous kingdoms, which were formed after each successive generation. Similarly, the Yadava clan of kings formed numerous kingdoms in Central India.[27]

Cultural differences

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Vedic King performs the Rajasuya Sacrifice.

Parts of western India were dominated by tribes who had a slightly different culture, considered non-Vedic by the mainstream Vedic culture prevailing in the Kuru and Panchala kingdoms. Similarly, there were some tribes in the eastern regions of India considered to be in this category.[28] Tribes with non-Vedic culture — especially those of barbaric nature — were collectively termed as Mleccha. Very little was mentioned in the ancient Indian literature about the kingdoms to the North, beyond the Himalayas. China was mentioned as a kingdom known as Cina, often grouped with Mleccha kingdoms.

List of Janapadas

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Vedic literature

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The Vedas mention five sub-divisions of ancient India:[29]

The Vedic literature mentions the following janas or janapadas:[30]

Jana or Janapada IAST name Region Mentioned in
Rigveda		 Mentioned in
Atharvaveda
Aja Aja Central ✓
Alina Alina Western ✓
Ambashtha Ambaśṭha Central
Andhra Āndhra Southern
Anga Aṅga Eastern ✓
Anu Anu Western ✓
Balhika Balhika Northern ✓
Bhalana Bhalana Western ✓
Bharadvaja Bharadvāja Central ✓
Bharata Bharata Central ✓
Bheda Bheda Central ✓
Bodha Bodha Central
Chedi Cedi Central ✓
Druhyu Druhyu Western ✓
Gandhara Gandhāra Western ✓ ✓
Kamboja Kamboja Northern
Keshin Keśin Central
Kikata Kīkaṭa Eastern ✓ ✓
Kirata Kirāta Eastern
Kosala Kosala Eastern
Krivi Krivi Central ✓
Kunti Kunti Central
Kalinga Kalinga Eastern ✓ ✓
Kuru Kuru Central ✓ ✓
Magadha Magadha Eastern ✓
Mahavrisha Mahāvṛṣa Northern ✓
Matsya Matsya Central ✓
Mujavana Mūjavana Northern ✓ ✓
Mutiba Mūtiba Southern
Nishada Niṣāda Central
Paktha Paktha Western ✓
Panchala Pāñcala Central
Parshu Parśu Western ✓
Paravata Pārāvata Central ✓
Prithu Pṛthu Western ✓
Pulinda Pulinda Southern
Pundra Puṇḍra Eastern
Puru Pūru Western ✓
Rushama Ruśama Central ✓
Salva Śālva Central
Satvanta Satvanta Southern
Shabara Śabara Southern
Shigru Śigru Central ✓
Shiva Śiva Western ✓
Shvikna Śvikna Central
Srinjaya Sṛñjaya Central ✓ ✓
Tritsu Tṛtsu Central ✓
Turvasha Turvaśa Western ✓
Ushinara Uśīnara Central ✓
Uttara Kuru Uttara Kuru Northern
Uttara Madra Uttara Madra Northern
Vaikarna Vaikarṇa Northern ✓
Vanga Vaṅga Eastern
Kashi Kāśi Eastern
Varashikha Varaśikha Central ✓
Vasha Vaśa Central
Vidarbha Vidarbha Southern ✓
Videha Videha Eastern
Vishanin Viśaṇin Western ✓
Vrichivanta Vṛcivanta Western ✓
Yadu Yadu Western ✓
Yakshu Yakṣu Central ✓
See also: List of Rigvedic tribes

Puranic literature

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The Puranas mention seven sub-divisions of ancient India:[31]

According to research by political scientist Sudama Misra, the Puranic texts mention the following janapadas:[32]

Janapada Region Mentioned in the Puranas? Alternative names and locations
Matsya
(Chapter 114) 		Vayu
(Chapter 45) 		Markandeya
(Chapter 57) 		Vamana
(Chapter 13) 		Brahmanda
(Chapter 16)
Ābhīra (northern) Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Ābhīra (southern) Southern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Abhīṣaha (Abhishaha) Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Apanga (Vayu), Aupadha (Markandeya), Alasa (Vamana)
Āhuka Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Kuhaka (Markandeya), Kuhuka (Vamana)
Alimadra Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ Anibhadra (Markandeya), Alibhadra (Vamana)
Ānarta Western ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Āvantya Markandeya, Vamana
Andhaka Central ✓
Āndhra Southern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Andha (Markandeya)
Andhravāka Eastern ✓ ✓ ✓ Andhāraka (Markandeya)
Aṅga Eastern ✓ ✓ ✓ Central and Eastern in Vamana
Aṅgāramāriṣa (Angara-Marisha) Southern ✓
Āntaranarmada Western ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Uttaranarmada (Markandeya), Sunarmada (Vamana)
Antargiri Eastern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Anūpa Vindhyan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Arūpa (Matsya), Annaja (Vayu)
Aparīta Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Purandhra (Matsya), Aparānta (Markandeya)
Arthapa Central ✓ ✓ Atharva (Markandeya)
Aśmaka (Ashmaka) Southern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Aśvakūṭa Central ✓
Āṭavi Southern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Āraṇya (Markandeya), Āṭavya (Brahmanda)
Ātreya Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Atri (Matsya, Brahmanda)
Auṇḍra Vindhyan ✓
Avanti Vindhyan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Central and Vindhyan in Matsya
Bahirgiri Eastern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Vāhlīka Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Bahula Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ Pahlava (Vayu), Bahudha (Vamana)
Barbara Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Central and Northern in Vamana
Bhadra Eastern and Central ✓
Bhadrakāra Central ✓ ✓ ✓
Bharadvāja Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Bhārgava Eastern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Bharukaccha Western ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Bhanukaccha (Vayu), Bhīrukahcha (Markandeya), Dārukachchha (Vamana), Sahakaccha (Brahmanda)
Bhogavardhana Southern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Bhoja Vindhyan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Gopta (Vamana)
Bhūṣika (Bhushika) Northern ✓
Bodha Central ✓ ✓ ✓ Bāhya (Matsya)
Brahmottara Eastern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Suhmottara (Matsya), Samantara (Brahmanda)
Carmakhaṇḍika (Charmakhandika) Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Attakhaṇḍika (Matsya), Sakheṭaka (Vamana)
Kerala Southern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Kevala (Markandeya)
Cīna (China) Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Pīna (Vayu), Veṇa (Vamana)
Cola (Chola) Southern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Caulya (Vayu), Cauḍa (Vamana); Southern and Eastern in Brahmanda
Cūlika (Chulika) Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Cūḍika (Vamana), Vindhyacūlika (Brahmanda)
Daṇḍaka Southern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Darada Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Darva Himalayan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Himalayan and Northern in Vayu and Markandeya
Daśeraka (Dasheraka) Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Karseruka (Vayu), Kuśeruka (Markandeya)
Daśamālika (Dashamalika) Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Daśanāmaka (Matsya), Daśamānika (Vayu), Daṅśana (Vamana)
Daśarṇa (Dasharna) Vindhyan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Druhyu Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ Hrada (Vayu), Bhadra (Brahmanda)
Durga Western ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Durgala (Brahmanda)
Ganaka Northern ✓
Gandhāra Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Godha Central ✓
Golāṅgūla Southern ✓
Gonarda Eastern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Govinda (Vayu), Gomanta (Markandeya), Mananda (Vamana)
Haṃsamārga Himalayan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Sarvaga (Himalayan) in Matsya; Haṃsamārga (Northern and Himalayan) in Vayu and Markandeya; Karnamārga (Northern) and Haṃsamārga (Himalayan) in Vamana; Haṃsamārga (Himalayan) Haṃsabhaṅga (Northern) in Brahmanda
Hara-Hunaka Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Pūrṇa (Vayu), Ūrṇa (Markandeya), Cūrṇa (Vamana), Hūṇa (Brahmanda)
Hāramuṣika (Haramushika) Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Hāramūrtika (Matsya), Hārapūrika (Vayu), Sāmuṣaka (Vamana)
Huhuka Himalayan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Samudgaka (Matsya), Sahūdaka (Vayu), Sakṛtraka (Markandeya), Śahuhūka (Vamana), Sahuhūka (Brahmanda)
Ijika Northern ✓
Īṣīka (Ishika) Southern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Vaisakya (Markandeya)
Jaguda Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ Jāṇgala (Matsya), Juhuḍa (Vayu), Jāguḍa (Markandeya)
Jāṇgala Central ✓ ✓ ✓
Jñeyamarthaka Eastern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Jñeyamallaka (Markandeya), Aṅgiyamarṣaka (Vamana), Gopapārthiva (Brahmanda)
Kachchhika Western ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Kāchchhīka (Matsya), Kacchīya (Vayu), Kāśmīra (Markandeya), Kacchipa (Brahmanda)
Kālatoyaka Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Kalinga (central) Central ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Arkalinga (Markandeya)
Kalinga (southern) Southern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Kalitaka Western ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Kālītaka (Vayu), Anīkaṭa (Markandeya), Tālīkaṭa (Vamana), Kuntala (Brahmanda)
Kalivana Western ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Kolavana (Vayu), Kālivala (Markandeya), Vāridhana (Vamana), Kalivana (Brahmanda)
Kāmboja Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Kantakara Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Kanṭakāra (Matsya), Raddhakaṭaka (Vayu), Bahubhadra (Markandeya), Kādhara (Vamana)
Kāraskara Western ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Paraṣkara (Vayu), Kaṭhākṣara (Markandeya), Karandhara (Brahmanda)
Kārūṣa (Karusha) Vindhyan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Southern and Vindhyan (Matsya)
Kāśmīra (Kashmira) Northern ✓ ✓ ✓
Kauśika Central ✓
Kekeya Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Kaikeyya (Matsya), Kaikeya (Markandeya), Kaikeya (Vamana)
Khasa Himalayan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Khaśa (Vamana), Śaka (Brahmanda)
Kirāta Himalayan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Kirāta (Matsya, Central and Himalayan)
Kisaṇṇa Central ✓
Kiṣkindhaka (Kishkindhaka) Vindhyan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Kikarava (Vamana)
Koṅkaṇa Southern ✓
Kośala (Central) Central ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Kośala (Vindhyan) Vindhyan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Kukkuṭa Northern ✓
Kulūta Northern ✓ ✓ Ulūta (Brahmanda)
Kulya Southern and Central ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Only Central in Markandeya; only Southern in Vamana and Brahmanda
Kumara Southern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Kupatha (Matsya), Kumana (Vayu), Kusuma (Markandeya), Kumārāda (Vamana), Kṣapaṇa (Brahmanda)
Kuninda Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Pulinda (Matsya), Kaliṅga (Markandeya), Kalinda (Brahmanda)
Kuntala Southern and Central ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Kuntala ( (Matsya, only Central), Kuṇḍala (Vamana)
Kupatha Himalayan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Kṣupaṇa (Vayu), Kurava (Markandeya)
Kuru Central ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Kaurava (Vamana)
Kuśalya (Kushalya) Central ✓
Kuśūdra (Kushudra) Central ✓
Kuthaprāvaraṇa Himalayan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Kuśaprāvaraṇa (Vayu), Kuntaprāvaraṇa (Markandeya), Apaprāvaraṇa (Brahmanda)
Lalhitta Northern ✓
Lampāka Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Lamaka (Brahmanda)
Madraka Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Bhadraka (Vayu and Vamana), Maṇḍala (Brahmanda)
Madguraka Eastern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Mudgara (Markandeya), Mudagaraka (Brahmanda)
Mādreya Central ✓
Magadha Eastern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Central and Eastern in Vayu and Brahmanda
Maharāṣṭra (Maharashtra) Southern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Navarāṣṭra (Matsya)
Māheya Western ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Māhiṣika (Mahishika) Southern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Māhiṣaka (Vayu and Markandeya)
Mālada Eastern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Mālava (Matsya), Manada (Markandeya), Mansāda (Vamana)
Malaka Central ✓
Malavartika Eastern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Mallavarṇaka (Matsya), Mālavartin (Vayu), Mānavartika (Markandeya), Baladantika (Vamana)
Mālava Vindhyan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Ekalavya (Vamana), Malada (Brahmanda)
Malla Eastern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Śālva (Matsya), Māla (Vayu), Māia (Vamana)
Maṇḍala Himalayan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Mālava (Vayu), Mālava (Markandeya)
Māṇḍavya Northern ✓
Māṣa (Masha) Vindhyan ✓
Mātaṅga Eastern ✓
Matsya Central ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Yatstha (Vamana)
Maulika Southern ✓ ✓ ✓ Maunika (Vayu)
Mekala Vindhyan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Rokala (Vayu), Kevala (Markandeya)
Arbuda Western ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Mūka Central ✓
Mūṣika (Mushika) Southern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Sūtika (Matsya), Mūṣikāda (Vamana), Mūṣika (Brahmanda)
Nairṇika Southern ✓ ✓ ✓ Naiṣika (Markandeya)
Nalakālika Southern ✓ ✓ ✓ Vanadāraka (Markandeya), Nalakāraka (Vamana)
Nāsikya Western ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Vāsikya (Matsya), Nāsikānta (Vamana), Nāsika (Brahmanda)
Nirāhāra Himalayan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Nigarhara (Vayu), Nihāra (Markandeya)
Naiṣadha (Naishadha) Vindhyan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Niṣāda (Vayu)
Pahlava Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Pallava (all except Vayu)
Pāṇavīya Northern ✓
Pāñcala (Panchala) Central ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Pāṇḍya (Pandya) Southern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Puṇḍra (Markandeya), Puṇḍra (Vamana)
Pārada Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Parita (Vayu), Pāravata (Vamana)
Paṭaccara (Patachchara) Central ✓ ✓ ✓ Śatapatheśvara (Vayu)
Paurika Southern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Paunika (Vayu), Paurika (Markandeya), Paurika (Vamana), Paurika (Brahmanda)
Pluṣṭa (Plushta) Himalayan ✓
Pragjyotisha Eastern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Prasthala Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Puṣkala (Markandeya)
Pravaṅga Eastern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Plavaṅga (Matsya and Brahmanda)
Prāvijaya Eastern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Prāviṣeya (Brahmanda)
Priyalaukika Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Harṣavardhana (Markandeya), Aṅgalaukika (Vamana), Aṅgalaukika (Brahmanda)
Puleya Western ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Kulīya (Matsya), Pulinda (Markandeya), Pulīya (Vamana), Pauleya (Brahmanda)
Pulinda Southern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Puṇḍra Eastern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Muṇḍa (Vayu), Madra (Markandeya), Pṛsadhra (Vamana)
Rākṣasa (Rakshasa) Southern ✓
Rāmaṭha Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Māṭhara (Markandeya), Māṭharodha (Vamana)
Rūpasa Western ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Kūpasa (Vayu), Rūpapa (Markandeya), Rūpaka (Brahmanda)
Sainika Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Pidika (Vayu), Śūlika (Markandeya), Jhillika (Brahmanda)
Salva (Shalva) Central ✓ ✓ ✓
Saraja Vindhyan ✓
Sārasvata Western ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Sārika Southern ✓
Surāṣṭra (Surashtra) Western ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Saurāṣṭra (Matsya)
Sauśalya (Saushalya) Central ✓
Sauvīra Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Setuka Southern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Śailūṣa (Markandeya), Jānuka (Vamana)
Śabara (Shabara) Southern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Bara (Vayu), Śarava (Brahmanda)
Śaka (Shaka) Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Central in Vamana
Suhma Eastern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Śaśikhādrika (Shashikhadraka) Himalayan ✓
Śatadruja (Shatadruja) Northern ✓ ✓ Śatadrava (Vamana)
Ṣaṭpura Vindhyan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Padgama (Matsya), Ṣaṭsura (Vayu), Paṭava (Markandeya), Bahela (Vamana)
Śulakara (Shulakara) Northern ✓
Śūrpāraka Western ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Sūrpāraka (Vayu), Sūryāraka (Markandeya), Sūryāraka (Brahmanda)
Sindhu Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Sirāla Western ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Surāla (Vayu), Sumīna (Markandeya), Sinīla (Vamana), Kirāta (Brahmanda)
Śudra (Shudra) Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Suhya (Brahmanda)
Sujaraka Eastern ✓
Supārśva (Suparshva) Northern ✓
Śūrasena (Shurasena) Central ✓ ✓ ✓
Taittrika Western ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Taittirika (Matsya), Turasita (Vayu), Kurumini (Markandeya), Tubhamina (Vamana), Karīti (Brahmanda)
Talagana Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Talagāna (Matsya), Stanapa (Vayu), Tāvakarāma (Vamana), Tālaśāla (Brahmanda)
Tāmasa Himalayan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Chamara (Matsya), Tomara (Vamana), Tāmara (Brahmanda)
Tāmas Western ✓
Tāmralipataka Eastern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Taṅgaṇa Himalayan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Apatha (Matsya), Gurguṇa (Markandeya)
Taṅgaṇa Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Tuṅgana (Markandeya)
Tāpasa Western ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Svāpada (Markandeya), Tāpaka (Brahmanda)
Tilaṇga Central ✓
Tomara Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Tāmasa (Markandeya and Vamana)
Tośala (Toshala) Vindhyan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Traipura Vindhyan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Trigarta Himalayan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Tumbara Vindhyan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Tumbura (Vayu), Tumbula (Markandeya), Barbara (Brahmanda)
Tumura Vindhyan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Tumbura (Markandeya), Turaga (Vamana), Tuhuṇḍa (Brahmanda)
Tuṇḍikera Vindhyan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Śauṇḍikera (Matsya), Tuṣṭikāra (Markandeya)
Tūrṇapāda Northern ✓
Tuṣāra (Tushara) Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Tukhāra (Markandeya)
Udbhida Southern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Ulida (Vamana), Kulinda (Brahmanda)
Urṇa Himalayan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Huṇa (Vayu)
Utkala Vindhyan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Eastern and Central in Brahmanda
Uttamārṇa Vindhyan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Uttama (Brahmanda)
Vāhyatodara Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Girigahvara (Brahmanda)
Vanavāsika Southern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Vājivasika (Matsya), Banavāsika (Vayu), Namavāsika (Markandeya), Mahāśaka (Vamana)
Vaṅga Eastern ✓ ✓ ✓ Central and Eastern in Vamana
Vāṅgeya Eastern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Mārgavageya (Matsya), Rāṅgeya (Markandeya), Vojñeya (Brahmanda)
Kāśī (Kashi) Central ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Vāṭadhāna Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Vatsa Central ✓
Vātsīya Western ✓
Vaidarbha Southern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Videha Eastern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Vaidiśa (Vaidisha) Vindhyan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Vaidika (Vayu), Kholliśa (Vamana)
Vindhyamūlika Southern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Vindhyapuṣika (Matsya), Vindhyaśaileya (Markandeya), Vindhyamaulīya (Brahmanda)
Vītihotra Vindhyan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Vīrahotra (Markandeya), Vītahotra (Vamana)
Vṛka Central ✓ ✓ ✓
Yamaka Eastern ✓
Yavana Northern ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Gavala (Markandeya)

Sanskrit epics

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The Bhishma Parva of the Mahabharata mentions around 230 janapadas, while the Ramayana mentions only a few of these. Unlike the Puranas, the Mahabharata does not specify any geographical divisions of ancient India, but does support the classification of certain janapadas as southern or northern.[33]

See also: Category:Kingdoms in the Mahabharata

Buddhist canon

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The Buddhist canonical texts - Anguttara Nikaya, Digha Nikaya, Chulla-Niddesa, although with some differences between them, primarily refer to the following 16 mahajanapadas ("great janapadas"):[34]

  1. Anga
  2. Assaka
  3. Avanti
  4. Chetiya
  5. Gandhara
  6. Kamboja
  7. Kasi
  8. Kosala
  9. Kuru
  10. Machchha
  11. Magadha
  12. Malla
  13. Panchala
  14. Surasena
  15. Vajji (Bajji or Vṛji)
  16. Vamsha (Vatsa)

Jain text

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The Jain text Vyākhyāprajñapti or Bhagavati Sutra also mentions 16 important janapadas, but many names differ from the ones mentioned in the Buddhist texts.[34]

  1. Accha
  2. Anga
  3. Avaha
  4. Bajji (Vajji or Vrijji)
  5. Banga (Vanga)
  6. Kasi (Kashi)
  7. Kochcha
  8. Kosala
  9. Ladha (Lata)
  10. Magadha
  11. Malavaka
  12. Malaya
  13. Moli (Malla)
  14. Padha
  15. Sambhuttara
  16. Vaccha (Vatsa)

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b c Misra 1973, p. 18.
  2. ^ Charles Rockwell Lanman (1912), A Sanskrit reader: with vocabulary and notes, Boston: Ginn & Co., ... jána, m. creature; man; person; in plural, and collectively in singular, folks; a people or race or tribe ... cf. γένος, Lat. genus, Eng. kin, 'race' ...
  3. ^ Stephen Potter, Laurens Christopher Sargent (1974), Pedigree: the origins of words from nature, Taplinger, ISBN 9780800862480, ... *gen-, found in Skt. jana, 'a man', and Gk. genos and L. genus, 'a race' ...
  4. ^ Dunkel, George (2002). "Vedic janapada and Ionic andrapodon; with notes on Vedic drupadam and IE pedom "place" and "fetter"". Indo-European Perspectives (ed. M. R. V. Southern) (Monograph). Journal of Indo-European Studies.
  5. ^ Witzel 1995.
  6. ^ Misra 1973, p. 15.
  7. ^ Misra 1973, pp. 7–11.
  8. ^ Misra 1973, p. 12.
  9. ^ Misra 1973, p. 13.
  10. ^ a b Misra 1973, p. 14.
  11. ^ Misra 1973, pp. 15–16.
  12. ^ D. R. Bhandarkar (1994). Lectures on the Ancient History of India from 650 - 325 B. C. Asian Educational Services. pp. 174–. ISBN 978-81-206-0124-6.
  13. ^ Devendrakumar Rajaram Patil (1946). Cultural History from the Vāyu Purāna. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 175–. ISBN 978-81-208-2085-2.
  14. ^ Sudāmā Miśra (1973). Janapada state in ancient India. Bhāratīya Vidyā Prakāśana.
  15. ^ Śrīrāma Goyala (1994). The Coinage of Ancient India. Kusumanjali Prakashan.
  16. ^ Misra 1973, p. 17.
  17. ^ a b Misra 1973, p. 19.
  18. ^ https://sanskritdictionary.com/?q=gr%C4%81ma%E1%B9%87%C4%AB. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  19. ^ a b Ram Sharan Sharma (1991). Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 242. ISBN 9788120808270.
  20. ^ Dinesh Kumar Ojha (2006). Interpretations of Ancient Indian Polity: A Historiographical Study. Manish Prakashan. p. 160. ISBN 9788190246965.
  21. ^ Misra 1973, p. 20.
  22. ^ a b Anant Sadashiv Altekar (1949). State and Government in Ancient India. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 151–153. ISBN 9788120810099.
  23. ^ Rohan Dua. "India's largest known burial site is 3,800 yrs old, confirms carbon dating". The Times of India.
  24. ^ Rohan Dua (22 February 2020). "India's largest known burial site is 3,800 yrs old, confirms carbon dating". The Times of India.
  25. ^ The Geographical knowledge. 1971.
  26. ^ Knipe 2015, p. 234-5.
  27. ^ Asim Kumar Chatterji (1980). Political History of Pre-Buddhist India. Indian Publicity Society.
  28. ^ Millard Fuller. "(अंगिका) Language : The Voice of Anga Desh". Angika.
  29. ^ Misra 1973, p. 24.
  30. ^ Misra 1973, p. 304-305.
  31. ^ Misra 1973, p. 45.
  32. ^ Misra 1973, p. 306-321.
  33. ^ Misra 1973, p. 99.
  34. ^ a b Misra 1973, p. 2.

Bibliography

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