Kazalla or Kazallu (Ka-zal-luki) is the name given in Akkadian sources to a city in the ancient Near East whose locations is unknown. Its god is Numushda with his consort Namrat.[1][2][3] There are indications that the god Lugal-awak also lived in Kazallu.[4]
History
editThird Millennium BC
editUnder its king Kashtubila, Kazalla warred against Sargon of Akkad in the 24th or 23rd century BC. Sargon laid the city of Kazalla to waste so effectively that "the birds could not find a place to perch away from the ground."[5][6] This particular story was written a millennium or more after the fact and is considered a literary composition.[7] The second ruler of the Akkadian Empire, Rimush, suppressed a revolt by Kazallu reporting:
"Rimus, king of the world — the god Enlil did indeed grant kingship to him. ... Thereupon, on his return, Kazallu revolted. He conquered it and [wi]thin Kazallu (itself) struck down 12,052 men. He took 5,862 captives. Further, he captured Ašarēd, governor of Kazallu and destroyed its (Kazallu's) wall. ... "[8][9]
A number of land grant inscriptions, the predecessors of Kudurrus, from the reign of Manishtushu the third king of the Akkadian Empire, mention feasts occurring in Kazallu and people from Kazallu.[10][11] Kazallu also joined the "great revolt" led by Kish against the 4th Akkadian ruler Naram-Sin. Naram-Sin crushed the revolt and in an inscription mentioned defeating "Puzur-Numusda, governor of Kazallu". It is unclear how that governor relates to the one under Ur III.[8] The city was briefly under the control of Elam under Puzur-Inshushinak until Elam fell to Ur with the first Ur III ruler, Ur-Nammu writing "Then: Umma, Marda, Šubur, Kazallu, and their settlements, and whatsoever was oppressed by Anšan, verily, I established their freedom".[12][13] Under the Ur III empire, the city was ruled by ensi (governors).[14] Some of them, Ititi (appointed in 28th year of Shulgi), Izariq (S31), Kallamu (S43), Šu-Mama (S47), and Apillaša (appointed in year 7 of Amar-Suen continuing until at least year 5 of Shu-Sin), are known by name. It has been suggested that Su-Mama and Apillaša had a period of co-regency.[15][16][17][18] There is a letter from Ibbi-Sin, the last ruler of Ur III, and Puzur-Numušda 1 who he had made governor of Kazallu, complaining that he (Girbubu, governor of Girkal, a city associated with Kazaalu in a geographic list) was not doing enough to oppose Ishbi-Erra, ruler of Isin.[19] A notable letter sent to Ibbi-Sin reads:
"To Ibbi-Suen, my king, speak what Ishbl-Erra, your servant, says: I was charged with an expedition to Isin and Kazallu to buy grain. Grain is (now) reaching the rate of one gur (for) each (shekel) and the 20 talents of silver for buying grain have been spent. ... Now the Martus in their entirety have entered the interior of the country taking one by one all the great fortresses. ...[20]
Old Babylonian period
editIn the Isin-Larsa period, between the fall of the Ur III empire until Hammurabi finally establishes supremacy for Babylon in the region, Kazallu is often mentioned in the conflicts of that time. In the early 2nd millennium BC the city had a number of conflicts with Larsa. A year name of Sin-Iqisham records "Year (Sin-iqiszam) made (statues) of / for Numuszda, Namrat and Lugal-apiak and brought them into the city of Kazallu".[21] The 2nd year name of Warad-Sin reads "Year the city wall of Kazallu was destroyed and the army of Mutibal occupying Larsa was smitten by weapons". Larsa ruler Kudur-Mabuk also reports repelling the forces of Kazullu.[22] A ruler of Isin, Erra-imitti, also claimed to have destroyed Kazullu. And Rîm-Anum, ruler of Uruk, reports in a year name "Year in which Rim-Anum the king defeated the land of Emutbal, the troops of Esznunna, Isin and Kazallu who marched together against him to make booty ... which was not counted since ancient times ... and defeated them".[23] Kazallu briefly became a city-state in its own right before falling to Babylon. The 13th year name of Babylonian ruler Sumu-abum lists the destruction of Kazallu.[24]
After the fall of the First Babylonian Empire the city of Kazallu is no longer recorded in history.
Location
editAccording to a tablet from the reign of Gudea of Lagash, Kazallu was located somewhere to the west of Mesopotamia, in the land of Martu.[25] According to a letter to Ibbi-Sîn the Martu were hindering travel between Ur and Kazallu.[26] Some scholars today believe it was only about 15 km from the city of Babylon, and just west of the Euphrates. In texts from Drehem the city is said to be to the east of the unlocated city of Girtab.[27] Old Babylonian records have it as being in the area of Marad (modern Tell as-Sadoum).[28] Another researcher has suggested that Kazallu can be found "in the area east or southeast of Dilbat".[29] And yet another "likely modern Azragiya on the Euphrates located 4 kms northwest of Fallujah".[30]
See also
editReferences
edit- ^ Jonathan L. Ready, "Zeus, Ancient Near Eastern Notions of Divine Incomparability, and Similes in the Homeric Epics", Classical Antiquity, vol. 31, no. 1, University of California Press, pp. 56–91, 2012
- ^ Sharlach, Tonia. "Šulgi, Mighty Man, King of Ur", Fortune and Misfortune in the Ancient Near East: Proceedings of the 60th Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale Warsaw, 21–25 July 2014, edited by Olga Drewnowska and Malgorzata Sandowicz, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 211-220, 2011
- ^ Helle, Sophus, "The Temple Hymns", in Enheduana: The Complete Poems of the World's First Author, New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 53-94, 2023
- ^ Stol, M., "An Old Babylonian Contract", Revue d’Assyriologie et d’archéologie Orientale, vol. 70, no. 1, pp. 55–56, 1976
- ^ Oppenheim, A. Leo (translator). Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, 3d ed. James B. Pritchard, ed. Princeton: University Press, 1969
- ^ Howard, Sethanne, "En Hedu’anna", Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, vol. 103, no. 2, Washington Academy of Sciences, pp. 21–34, 2017
- ^ Grayson, A. K., "Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles", TCS 5. Locust Valley: J. J. Augustin, 1975
- ^ a b Douglas Frayne, "Akkad", in Sargonic and Gutian Periods (2234-2113 BC), Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pp. 5-218, 1993 ISBN 9780802035868
- ^ Foster, Benjamin R., "The Sargonic Victory Stele from Telloh", Iraq, vol. 47, 1985, pp. 15–30, 1885
- ^ I. J. Gelb, P. Steinkeller, and R. M. Whiting Jr, "OIP 104. Earliest Land Tenure Systems in the Near East: Ancient Kudurrus", Oriental Institute Publications 104 Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 1989, 1991 ISBN 978-0-91-898656-6 Text Plates
- ^ Wright, Jacob L., "Commensal Politics in Ancient Western Asia: The Background to Nehemiah's Feasting (continued, Part II)", vol. 122, no. 3, pp. 333-352, 2010
- ^ Sharlach, Tonia. "Princely Employments in the Reign of Shulgi" Journal of Ancient Near Eastern History, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 1-68, 2022
- ^ Yildiz, Fatma, "A Tablet of Codex Ur-Nammu from Sippar", Orientalia, vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 87–97, 1981
- ^ Rients de Boer, "Marad in the Early Old Babylonian Period: Its Kings, Chronology, and Isin's Influence", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 65, The American Schools of Oriental Research, pp. 73–90, 2013
- ^ Michalowski, Piotr, "The Royal Letters in Their Historical Setting 1: The Affairs of King Šulgi (Letters 1–12, 15–18)", The Correspondence of the Kings of Ur: An Epistolary History of an Ancient Mesopotamian Kingdom, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 64-81, 2011
- ^ Goetze, A., "Šakkanakkus of the Ur III Empire", JCS17, pp. 1–31, 1963
- ^ Kutscher, Raphael, "Apillaša, Governor of Kazallu", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 22, no. 3/4, American Schools of Oriental Research, pp. 63–65, 1968
- ^ Allred, L., Garfinkle, S. J., & Molina, M., "The Tenure of Provincial Governors: Some Observations", In From the 21st Century BC, to the 21st Century AD: Proceeding of the International Conference on Sumerian Studies Held in Madrid, 22–24 July 2010, pp. 115-24, December 2013
- ^ Michalowski, Piotr, "Ibbi-Sin to Puzur-Numušda 1 (IbPu1, 3.1.20, RCU 22)". The Correspondence of the Kings of Ur: An Epistolary History of an Ancient Mesopotamian Kingdom, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 463-482, 2021
- ^ Jacobsen, Thorkild, "The Reign of Ibbī-Suen", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 36–47, 1953
- ^ Richardson, Seth, "Early Mesopotamia: the presumptive state", in Past & Present, no. 215, pp. 3–49, 2012
- ^ Fiette, Baptiste, "‘King’ Kudur-Mabuk: A Study on the Identity of a Mesopotamian Ruler Without a Crown", Die Welt Des Orients, vol. 50, no. 2, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht (GmbH & Co. KG), pp. 275–94, 2020
- ^ Rositani, Annunziata, "Some Rīm-Anum Texts from the Bīt asīrī Kept at the British Museum", Rivista Degli Studi Orientali, vol. 82, no. 1/4, Fabrizio Serra Editore, Sapienza - Universita di Roma, pp. 97–121, 2009
- ^ Rients de Boer, "Beginnings of Old Babylonian Babylon: Sumu-Abum and Sumu-La-El", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 70, The American Schools of Oriental Research, 2018, pp. 53–86, 2018
- ^ Howorth, Henry H., "The Later Rulers of Shirpurla or Lagash (Continued)", The English Historical Review, Vol. 17, No. 66, pp. 209-234, Apr. 1902
- ^ Silver, Minna (Lönnqvist). "Climate Change, the Mardu Wall, and the Fall of Ur". Fortune and Misfortune in the Ancient Near East: Proceedings of the 60th Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale Warsaw, 21–25 July 2014, edited by Olga Drewnowska and Malgorzata Sandowicz, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 271-296, 2021
- ^ Owen, David I., "Transliterations, Translations, and Brief Comments", The Nesbit Tablets, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 13-110, 2021
- ^ Yuhong, W, "Kings of Kazallu and Marad in the early OB Period", XXXIVème Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale, pp. 221-227, 1998
- ^ Finkelstein, J. J., "Subartu and Subarians in Old Babylonian Sources", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 1–7, 1955
- ^ Frayne, Douglas R., "The Zagros campaigns of the Ur III kings", Journal of the Canadian Society for Mesopotamian Studies 3, pp. 33-56, 2008