The atmosphere of the Moon is a very sparse layer of gases surrounding the Moon. For most practical purposes, the Moon is considered to be surrounded by vacuum. The elevated presence of atomic and molecular particles in its vicinity compared to interplanetary medium, referred to as "lunar atmosphere" for scientific objectives, is negligible in comparison with the gaseous envelopes surrounding Earth and most planets of the Solar System. The pressure of this small mass is around 3×10−15 atm (0.3 nPa), varying throughout the day, and in total mass less than 10 metric tonnes.[5][6] Otherwise, the Moon is considered not to have an atmosphere because it cannot absorb measurable quantities of radiation, does not appear layered or self-circulating, and requires constant replenishment due to the high rate at which its gases are lost into space.
Roger Joseph Boscovich was the first modern astronomer to argue for the lack of atmosphere around the Moon in his De lunae atmosphaera (1753).
Sources
editOne source of the lunar atmosphere is outgassing: the release of gases such as radon and helium resulting from radioactive decay within the crust and mantle. Another important source is the bombardment of the lunar surface by micrometeorites, the solar wind, and sunlight, in a process known as sputtering.[7]
Escape velocity and atmospheric hold
editGases can:
- be re-implanted into the regolith as a result of the Moon's gravity;
- escape the Moon entirely if the particle is moving at or above the lunar escape velocity of 2.38 km/s (1.48 mi/s), or 5,328 mph (8,575 km/h);
- be lost to space either by solar radiation pressure or, if the gases are ionized, by being swept away in the solar wind's magnetic field.
Composition
editWhat little atmosphere the Moon has consists of some unusual gases, including sodium and potassium, which are not found in the atmospheres of Earth, Mars, or Venus. At sea level on Earth, each cubic centimeter of the atmosphere contains approximately 1019 molecules; by comparison the lunar atmosphere contains fewer than 106 molecules in the same volume. On Earth, this is considered to be a very good vacuum. In fact, the density of the atmosphere at the Moon's surface is comparable to the density of some of the outermost fringes of Earth's atmosphere, where the International Space Station orbits.[8]
The elements sodium and potassium have been detected in the Moon's atmosphere using Earth-based spectroscopic methods, whereas the isotopes radon-222 and polonium-210 have been inferred from data obtained by the Lunar Prospector alpha particle spectrometer.[9] Argon-40, helium-4, oxygen and/or methane (CH4), nitrogen (N2) and/or carbon monoxide (CO), and carbon dioxide (CO2)) were detected by in-situ detectors placed by the Apollo astronauts.[10]
The average daytime abundances of the elements known to be present in the lunar atmosphere, in atoms per cubic centimeter, are as follows:
- Argon: 20,000–100,000[11]
- Helium: 5,000–30,000[11]
- Neon: up to 20,000[11][12]
- Sodium: 70
- Potassium: 17
- Hydrogen: fewer than 17
This yields approximately 80,000 total atoms per cubic centimeter, marginally higher than the quantity posited to exist in the atmosphere of Mercury.[10] While this greatly exceeds the density of the solar wind, which is usually on the order of just a few protons per cubic centimeter, it is virtually a vacuum in comparison with the atmosphere of the Earth.
The Moon may also have a tenuous "atmosphere" of electrostatically levitated dust. See Lunar soil for more details.
Ancient atmosphere
editIn October 2017, NASA scientists at the Marshall Space Flight Center and the Lunar and Planetary Institute in Houston announced their finding, based on studies of Moon magma samples retrieved by the Apollo missions, that the Moon had once possessed a relatively thick atmosphere for a period of 70 million years between 3 and 4 billion years ago. This atmosphere, sourced from gases ejected from lunar volcanic eruptions, was twice the thickness of that of present-day Mars. It has been theorized that this ancient atmosphere could have supported life, though no evidence of life has been found.[13] The ancient lunar atmosphere was eventually stripped away by solar winds and dissipated into space.[14]
See also
edit
References
edit- ^ "Lunar horizon glow from Surveyor 7". The Planetary Society. May 6, 2016. Retrieved Aug 8, 2022.
- ^ "NASA Mission To Study Mysterious Lunar Twilight Rays". Science Mission Directorate. Sep 3, 2013. Retrieved Aug 8, 2022.
- ^ Colwell, Joshua E.; Robertson, Scott R.; Horányi, Mihály; Wang, Xu; Poppe, Andrew; Wheeler, Patrick (2009-01-01). "Lunar Dust Levitation - Journal of Aerospace Engineering - Vol 22, No 1". Journal of Aerospace Engineering. 22 (1): 2–9. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0893-1321(2009)22:1(2). Retrieved 2022-08-08.
- ^ Deborah Byrd (Apr 24, 2014). "The zodiacal light, seen from the moon". EarthSky. Retrieved Aug 8, 2022.
- ^ Williams, David R. "Moon Fact Sheet". NASA. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
- ^ Globus, Ruth (1977). "Chapter 5, Appendix J: Impact Upon Lunar Atmosphere". In Johnson, Richard D.; Holbrow, Charles (eds.). Space Settlements: A Design Study. NASA. NASA SP-413. Archived from the original on 2010-05-31. Retrieved 2016-11-15.
- ^ Lucey, Paul; Korotev, Randy L.; Gillis, Jeffrey J.; Taylor, Larry A.; Lawrence, David; et al. (January 2006). "Understanding the Lunar Surface and Space-Moon Interactions". Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry. 60 (1): 83–219. Bibcode:2006RvMG...60...83L. doi:10.2138/rmg.2006.60.2.
- ^ "Is There an Atmosphere on the Moon?". NASA. 12 April 2013.
- ^ Lawson, Stefanie L.; Feldman, William C.; Lawrence, David J.; Moore, Kurt R.; Elphic, Richard C.; et al. (September 2005). "Recent outgassing from the lunar surface: The Lunar Prospector Alpha Particle Spectrometer". Journal of Geophysical Research. 110 (E9): E09009. Bibcode:2005JGRE..110.9009L. doi:10.1029/2005JE002433.
- ^ a b Stern, S. Alan (1999). "The lunar atmosphere: History, status, current problems, and context". Reviews of Geophysics. 37 (4): 453–491. Bibcode:1999RvGeo..37..453S. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.21.9994. doi:10.1029/1999RG900005. S2CID 10406165.
- ^ a b c Benna, M.; Mahaffy, P. R.; Halekas, J. S.; Elphic, R. C.; Delory, G. T. (May 2015). "Variability of helium, neon, and argon in the lunar exosphere as observed by the LADEE NMS instrument". Geophysical Research Letters. 42 (10): 3723–3729. Bibcode:2015GeoRL..42.3723B. doi:10.1002/2015GL064120.
Neon was detected over the nightside at levels comparable to He and was found to exhibit the spatial distribution of a surface accommodated noncondensable gas.
- ^ Steigerwald, William A. (17 August 2015). "NASA's LADEE Spacecraft Finds Neon in Lunar Atmosphere". NASA. Retrieved 18 August 2015.
- ^ Ciaccia, Chris (July 24, 2018). "Life on the Moon? New study argued life could have existed on the lunar surface". Fox News.
- ^ "NASA: The Moon Once Had an Atmosphere That Faded Away". Time. Retrieved 16 April 2018.
This article incorporates public domain material from Is There an Atmosphere on the Moon?. National Aeronautics and Space Administration.