Wikipedia

Patriarchy

This article is about the social system. For other uses, see Patriarchy (disambiguation).
"Macho politics" redirects here. For the concept of pride in male domination, see Machismo.
"Patriarchal system" redirects here. For the political hierarchy of the Western Zhou, see Patriarchal system (Western Zhou).
Not to be confused with Patriarchate.

Patriarchy is a social system in which men typically hold authority and responsibility. In anthropology, it refers to a family or clan structure where the father or eldest male holds supremacy within the family, while in feminist theory, it encompasses a broader social structure where men collectively dominate societal norms and institutions.[1][2][3]

Patriarchal ideology acts to explain and rationalize patriarchy by attributing gender inequality to inherent natural differences between men and women, divine commandment, or other fixed structures.[4] Sociologists tend to disagree with some of the predominantly biological explanations of patriarchy and contend that socialization processes are primarily responsible for establishing gender roles.[5] Sociobiologists compare human gender roles to sexed behavior in other primates and some[who?] argue that gender inequality comes primarily from genetic and reproductive differences between men and women. Social constructionists contest this argument, arguing that gender roles and gender inequity are instruments of power and have become social norms to maintain control over women.

Historically, patriarchy has manifested itself in the social, legal, political, religious, and economic organization of a range of different cultures.[6] Most contemporary societies are, in practice, patriarchal.[7][8]

Terminology

edit

Patriarchy literally means "the rule of the father"[9][4] and comes from the Greek πατριάρχης (patriarkhēs),[10][11] "father or chief of a race",[12] which is a compound of πατριά (patria), "lineage, descent, family, fatherland"[13] (from πατήρ patēr, "father")[14] and ἀρχή (arkhē), "domination, authority, sovereignty".[15]

Historically, the term patriarchy has been used to refer to autocratic rule by the male head of a family; however, since the late 20th century it has also been used to refer to social systems in which power is primarily held by adult men.[16][17][18] The term was particularly used by writers associated with second-wave feminism such as Kate Millett; these writers sought to use an understanding of patriarchal social relations to liberate women from male domination.[19][20] This concept of patriarchy was developed to explain male dominance as a social, rather than biological, phenomenon.[17]

Overview

edit

Patriarchy is a social system in which men are the primary authority figures in the areas of political leadership, moral authority and control of property.[21] Sociologist Sylvia Walby defines patriarchy as "a system of social structures and practices in which men dominate, oppress, and exploit women".[22] Social stratification along gender lines, with power predominantly held by men, has been observed in most, but not all societies.[7][17][18] The concept of patriarchy is also related to patrilineality in a anthropological sense, although not exclusively.[23][24][25][further explanation needed]

History

edit

Pre-history

edit

Sexual division of labour

edit

Some preconditions for the eventual development of patriarchy were the emergence of increased paternal investment in the offspring, also referred to as fatherhood, and of a sexual division of labour. Several researchers have stated that the first signs of a sexual division of labour dates from around 2 million years ago, deep within humanity's evolutionary past.[26][27][28] It has been connected to an evolutionary process during a period of resource scarcity in Africa approximately 2 million years ago.[27][28] In the 2009 book Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human,[26] British primatologist Richard Wrangham suggests that the origin of the division of labor between males and females may have originated with the invention of cooking,[29][30] which is estimated to have happened simultaneously with humans gaining control of fire between 1 and 2 million years ago.[31] The idea was early proposed by Friedrich Engels in an unfinished essay from 1876.

Sex hierarchies

edit

Anthropological, archaeological and evolutionary psychological evidence suggests that most prehistoric societies were relatively egalitarian,[7] and suggests that patriarchal social structures did not develop until after the end of the Pleistocene epoch, following social and technological developments such as agriculture and domestication.[32][33][34] According to Robert M. Strozier, historical research has not yet found a specific "initiating event".[35] Historian Gerda Lerner asserts in her 1986 book The Creation of Patriarchy that there was no single event, and documents that patriarchy as a social system arose in different parts of the world at different times.[36] Some scholars point to social and technological events, notably the emergence of agriculture, about six thousand years ago (4000 BCE).[37][38]

Marxist theory, as articulated mainly by Friedrich Engels in The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State (1884), assigns the origin of patriarchy to the emergence of private property, which has traditionally been controlled by men. In this view, men directed household production and sought to control women in order to ensure the passing of family property to their own (male) offspring, while women were limited to household labor and producing children.[16][19][39] Lerner disputes this idea, arguing that patriarchy emerged before the development of class-based society and the concept of private property.[40]

Domination by men of women is found in the Ancient Near East as far back as 3100 BCE, as are restrictions on a woman's reproductive capacity and exclusion from "the process of representing or the construction of history".[35] According to some researchers, with the appearance of the Hebrews, there is also "the exclusion of woman from the God-humanity covenant".[35][36]

The archaeologist Marija Gimbutas argues that waves of kurgan-building invaders from the Ukrainian steppes into the early agricultural cultures of Old Europe in the Aegean, the Balkans and southern Italy instituted male hierarchies that led to the rise of patriarchy in Western society.[41] Steven Taylor argues that the rise of patriarchal domination was associated with the appearance of socially stratified hierarchical polities, institutionalised violence and the separated individuated ego associated with a period of climatic stress.[42]

Ancient Western history

edit

A prominent Greek general Meno, in the Platonic dialogue of the same name, sums up the prevailing sentiment in Classical Greece about the respective virtues of men and women. He says:[43]

First of all, if you take the virtue of a man, it is easily stated that a man's virtue is this—that he be competent to manage the affairs of his city, and to manage them so as to benefit his friends and harm his enemies, and to take care to avoid suffering harm himself. Or take a woman's virtue: there is no difficulty in describing it as the duty of ordering the house well, looking after the property indoors, and obeying her husband.

— Meno, Plato in Twelve Volumes

The works of Aristotle portrayed women as morally, intellectually, and physically inferior to men; saw women as the property of men; claimed that women's role in society was to reproduce and to serve men in the household; and saw male domination of women as natural and virtuous.[44][45][46]

Not all of the great Greek thinkers believed that women were inferior. Aristotle's teacher Plato laid out his vision of the most just society in his work Republic. In it, Plato argues that women would have complete educational and political equality in such a society, and would serve in the military. The Pythagoreans also valued the participation of women, who were treated as intellectual equals.

Lerner states that Aristotle believed that women had colder blood than men, which made women not evolve into men, the sex that Aristotle believed to be perfect and superior. Maryanne Cline Horowitz stated that Aristotle believed that "soul contributes the form and model of creation". This implies that any imperfection that is caused in the world must be caused by a woman because one cannot acquire an imperfection from perfection (which he perceived as male). Aristotle had a hierarchical ruling structure in his theories. Lerner claims that through this patriarchal belief system, passed down generation to generation, people have been conditioned to believe that men are superior to women. These symbols are benchmarks which children learn about when they grow up, and the cycle of patriarchy continues much past the Greeks.[47]

Egypt left no philosophical record, but Herodotus left a record of his shock at the contrast between the roles of Egyptian women and the women of Athens. He observed that Egyptian women attended market and were employed in trade. In ancient Egypt, middle-class women were eligible to sit on a local tribunal, engage in real estate transactions, and inherit or bequeath property. Women also secured loans, and witnessed legal documents. Athenian women were denied such rights.[48]

Greek influence spread, however, with the conquests of Alexander the Great, who was educated by Aristotle.[49]

Modern Western history

edit

Although many 16th- and 17th-century theorists agreed with Aristotle's views concerning the place of women in society, none of them tried to prove political obligation on the basis of the patriarchal family until sometime after 1680. The patriarchal political theory is closely associated with Sir Robert Filmer. Sometime before 1653, Filmer completed a work entitled Patriarcha. However, it was not published until after his death. In it, he defended the divine right of kings as having title inherited from Adam, the first man of the human species, according to Judeo-Christian-Islamic tradition.[50]

However, in the latter half of the 18th century, clerical sentiments of patriarchy were meeting challenges from intellectual authorities – Diderot's Encyclopédie denies inheritance of paternal authority stating, "... reason shows us that mothers have rights and authority equal to those of fathers; for the obligations imposed on children originate equally from the mother and the father, as both are equally responsible for bringing them into the world. Thus the positive laws of God that relate to the obedience of children join the father and the mother without any differentiation; both possess a kind of ascendancy and jurisdiction over their children...."[51]

In the 19th century, various women began to question the commonly accepted patriarchal interpretation of Christian scripture. Quaker Sarah Grimké voiced skepticism about the ability of men to translate and interpret passages relating to the roles of the sexes without bias. She proposed alternative translations and interpretations of passages relating to women, and she applied historical and cultural criticism to a number of verses, arguing that their admonitions applied to specific historical situations, and were not to be viewed as universal commands.[52]

Elizabeth Cady Stanton used Grimké's criticism of biblical sources to establish a basis for feminist thought. She published The Woman's Bible, which proposed a feminist reading of the Old and New Testament. This tendency was enlarged by feminist theory, which denounced the patriarchal Judeo-Christian tradition.[53] In 2020, social theorist and theologian Elaine Storkey retold the stories of thirty biblical women in her book Women in a Patriarchal World and applied the challenges they faced to women today. Working from both the Hebrew Scriptures and the New Testament, she analysed different variations of patriarchy, and outlined the paradox of Rahab, a prostitute in the Old Testament who became a role-model in the New Testament Epistle of James, and Epistle to the Hebrews.[54] In his essay "A Judicial Patriarchy: Family Law at the Turn of the Century", Michael Grossberg coined the phrase "judicial patriarchy", stating that "The judge became the buffer between the family and the state", and that "Judicial patriarchs dominated family law because within these institutional and intraclass rivalries judges succeeded in protecting their power over the law governing the hearth."[55]: 290–291 

Asian history

edit

In ancient Japan, power in society was more evenly distributed, particularly in the religious domain, where Shintoism worships the goddess Amaterasu, and ancient writings were replete with references to great priestesses and magicians. However, at the time contemporary with Constantine in the West, "the emperor of Japan changed Japanese modes of worship", giving supremacy to male deities and suppressing belief in female spiritual power in what feminist scholars in the field of religious studies have called a "patriarchal revolution."[56]

In ancient China, gender roles and patriarchy were shaped by Confucianism. Adopted as the official religion in the Han dynasty, Confucianism has strong dictates regarding the behavior of women, declaring a woman's place in society, as well as outlining virtuous behavior.[57] Three Obediences and Four Virtues, a Confucian text, places a woman's value on her loyalty and obedience. It explains that an obedient woman is to obey their father before her marriage, her husband after marriage, and her first son if widowed, and that a virtuous woman must practice sexual propriety, proper speech, modest appearance, and hard work.[58] Ban Zhao, a Confucian disciple, writes in her book Precepts for Women that a woman's primary concern is to subordinate themselves before patriarchal figures, such as a husband or father, and that they need not concern themselves with intelligence or talent.[59] Ban Zhao is considered by some historians as an early champion for women's education in China; however, her extensive writing on the value of a woman's mediocrity and servile behavior leaves others feeling that this narrative is the result of a misplaced desire to cast her in a contemporary feminist light.[60] Similarly to Three Obediences and Four Virtues, Precepts for Women was meant as a moral guide for proper feminine behavior, and was widely accepted as such for centuries.[61]

In China's Ming dynasty, widowed women were expected to never remarry, and unmarried women were expected to remain chaste for the duration of their lives.[62] Biographies of Exemplary Women, a book containing biographies of women who lived according to the Confucian ideals of virtuous womanhood, popularized an entire genre of similar writing during the Ming dynasty. Women who lived according to this Neo-Confucian ideal were celebrated in official documents, and some had structures erected in their honor.[63]

In China's Qing dynasty, laws governing morality, sexuality, and gender-relations continued to be based on Confucian teachings. Men and women were both subject to strict laws regarding sexual behavior, however men were punished infrequently in comparison to women. Additionally, women's punishment often carried strong social stigma, "rendering [women] unmarriageable", a stigma which did not follow men.[64] Similarly, in the People's Republic of China, laws governing morality which were written as egalitarian were selectively enforced favoring men, with insufficient enforcement against female infanticide in various areas, while infanticide of any form was, by the letter of the law, prohibited.[65]

Social theories

edit
Further information: Sex differences in humans and Social construction of gender difference

Sociologists[clarification needed] tend to reject predominantly biological explanations of patriarchy[66] and contend that socialization processes are primarily responsible for establishing gender roles.[5] According to standard sociological theory, patriarchy is the result of sociological constructions that are passed down from generation to generation.[67] These constructions are most pronounced in societies with traditional cultures and less economic development.[68] Even in modern, developed societies, however, gender messages conveyed by family, mass media, and other institutions largely favor males having a dominant status.[5]

Although patriarchy exists within the scientific atmosphere,[clarification needed] "the periods over which women would have been at a physiological disadvantage in participation in hunting through being at a late stage of pregnancy or early stage of child-rearing would have been short".[69]: 157  During the time of the nomads, patriarchy still grew with power. Lewontin and others argue that such biological determinism unjustly limits women. In his study, he states women behave a certain way not because they are biologically inclined to, but rather because they are judged by "how well they conform to the stereotypical local image of femininity".[69]: 137 

Feminists[who?] believe that people have gendered biases, which are perpetuated and enforced across generations by those who benefit from them.[69] For instance, it has historically been claimed that women cannot make rational decisions during their menstrual periods. This claim cloaks the fact that men also have periods of time where they can be aggressive and irrational; furthermore, unrelated effects of aging and similar medical problems are often blamed on menopause, amplifying its reputation.[70] These biological traits and others specific to women, such as their ability to get pregnant, are often used against them as an attribute of weakness.[69][70]

Sociologist Sylvia Walby has composed six overlapping structures that define patriarchy and that take different forms in different cultures and different times:[22]

  1. The household: women are more likely to have their labor expropriated by their husbands such as through housework and raising children
  2. Paid work: women are likely to be paid less and face exclusion from paid work
  3. The state: women are unlikely to have formal power and representation
  4. Violence: women are more prone to being abused
  5. Sexuality: women's sexuality is more likely to be treated negatively
  6. Culture: representation of women in different cultural contexts

The idea that patriarchy is natural has, however, come under attack from many sociologists, explaining that patriarchy evolved due to historical, rather than biological, conditions. In technologically simple societies, men's greater physical strength and women's common experience of pregnancy combined to sustain patriarchy.[69] Gradually, technological advances, especially industrial machinery, diminished the primacy of physical strength in everyday life. Introduction of household appliances reduced the amount of manual labor needed in the households.[71][72] Similarly, contraception has given women control over their reproductive cycle.[73][relevant?]

Patriarchy and Feminism

Patriarchy generally falls under two categories, "traditional patriarchy" and "structural patriarchy" (Pierik).[74] Traditional patriarchy refers to the idea that the father is the head of the household and is at the top of families’ social hierarchies. This patriarchal structure is most apparent in the American representation of a nuclear family; the father works and brings home an income while the mother takes care of the children and the household. This economic power dynamic in the home typically places the desires of the man/father/husband as priority over the desires of the woman/mother/wife.

Structural patriarchy expands the range of this social hierarchy outside of just the home and family dynamic. The typical influence that men hold in the home is extended to their social and professional positions. Women are often considered the caretakers of the workplace when in a professional setting while men do the labor. This dynamic can be seen in an office setting, with men as sources of income for the business and women in roles as secretaries to care for the workplace. This system leans into the idea that men are typically placed in higher-power positions in society due to the traditional role of a financial provider, and women fall into caretaker roles.[75]

Development of Feminism

The extended presence of patriarchal structures has led to the establishment of feministic ideals over centuries (Brunell).[76] Several prominent fronts led to and continue to push the development of feminism; including paid and unpaid labor and expectations of gender roles(Thompson).[77] Men are traditionally viewed as the breadwinners in a patriarchal society, and women are seen as homemakers. Formal job occupations outside of the home, traditionally carried out by men in a patriarchal society, are paid labor. Any work done inside of the home without financial compensation, traditionally carried out by women in patriarchal societies, is unpaid labor. Until 1974, women were not allowed to have their bank accounts, which pushed the financial divide further and placed men in higher economic positions. (Adam)[78] The uneven financial compensation between these levels of labor is one of the factors that pushed feministic ideals forward.

The Role of Patriarchy in Feminism

With men being expected to bring home an income to support a family and the entire household, the strain of the increasing cost of living makes that ideal impractical. Because of this economic strain, many households rely on multiple incomes from both men and women. When women would traditionally be expected to stay home and provide childcare, they now have to seek it out elsewhere to provide for the family, which in turn drives up the cost of living further. With this reliance on further income and sourcing traditionally female childcare roles outside of the home, patriarchal norms start to become less relevant. This breakdown of traditional roles leads to the natural decrease of a gender-specific social structure.

Feminist Ideologies

Feminism is not a direct opposition to patriarchy, it is a theory in response to patriarchy. Feminism focuses on the empowerment of women in society and the dismissal of traditional gender roles that are oppressive. Traditional female roles in the household are largely abandoned, and equal opportunity for women is the largest ideal that feminism stands with. Feminist theories believe that financial and social opportunities should be equally available for all.

This social division of gender roles as caretakers and providers is broken down to better allow women to participate outside of caring for a home and children. Financial opportunity refers to employment pursuits, access to one's own finances, and wage equality for job positions that are available for both men and women. The wage gap issues and traditional roles as unpaid laborers for the family significantly drive the growth of feminism in modern social settings. Which in turn shuts down patriarchal structures.

Feminist theory

edit
 
"FIGHT PATRIARCHY" – a graffito in Turin

Feminist theorists have written extensively about patriarchy either as a primary cause of women's oppression, or as part of an interactive system. Shulamith Firestone, a radical-libertarian feminist, defines patriarchy as a system of oppression of women. Firestone believes that patriarchy is caused by the biological inequalities between women and men, e.g. that women bear children, while men do not. Firestone writes that patriarchal ideologies support the oppression of women and gives as an example the joy of giving birth, which she labels a patriarchal myth. For Firestone, women must gain control over reproduction in order to be free from oppression.[36] Feminist historian Gerda Lerner believes that male control over women's sexuality and reproductive functions is a fundamental cause and result of patriarchy.[79] Alison Jaggar also understands patriarchy as the primary cause of women's oppression. The system of patriarchy accomplishes this by alienating women from their bodies.

Interactive systems theorists Iris Marion Young and Heidi Hartmann believe that patriarchy and capitalism interact together to oppress women. Young, Hartmann, and other socialist and Marxist feminists use the terms patriarchal capitalism or capitalist patriarchy to describe the interactive relationship of capitalism and patriarchy in producing and reproducing the oppression of women.[80] According to Hartmann, the term patriarchy redirects the focus of oppression from the labour division to a moral and political responsibility liable directly to men as a gender. In its being both systematic and universal, therefore, the concept of patriarchy represents an adaptation of the Marxist concept of class and class struggle.[81]

Lindsey German represents an outlier in this regard. German argued for a need to redefine the origins and sources of the patriarchy, describing the mainstream theories as providing "little understanding of how women's oppression and the nature of the family have changed historically. Nor is there much notion of how widely differing that oppression is from class to class."[82] Instead, the patriarchy is not the result of men's oppression of women or sexism per se, with men not even identified as the main beneficiaries of such a system, but capital itself. As such, female liberation needs to begin "with an assessment of the material position of women in capitalist society."[82] In that, German differs from Young or Hartmann by rejecting the notion ("eternal truth") that the patriarchy is at the root of female oppression.[82]

Audre Lorde, an African American feminist writer and theorist, believed that racism and patriarchy were intertwined systems of oppression.[80] Sara Ruddick, a philosopher who wrote about "good mothers" in the context of maternal ethics, describes the dilemma facing contemporary mothers who must train their children within a patriarchal system. She asks whether a "good mother" trains her son to be competitive, individualistic, and comfortable within the hierarchies of patriarchy, knowing that he may likely be economically successful but a mean person, or whether she resists patriarchal ideologies and socializes her son to be cooperative and communal but economically unsuccessful.[36]

Lerner, in her 1986 book The Creation of Patriarchy, makes a series of arguments about the origins and reproduction of patriarchy as a system of oppression of women, and concludes that patriarchy is socially constructed and seen as natural and invisible.[79]

Some feminist theorists believe that patriarchy is an unjust social system that is harmful to both men and women.[83] It often includes any social, political, or economic mechanism that evokes male dominance over women. Because patriarchy is a social construction, it can be overcome by revealing and critically analyzing its manifestations.[84]

Jaggar, Young, and Hartmann are among the feminist theorists who argue that the system of patriarchy should be completely overturned, especially the heteropatriarchal family, which they see as a necessary component of female oppression. The family not only serves as a representative of the greater civilization by pushing its own affiliates to change and obey, but performs as a component in the rule of the patriarchal state that rules its inhabitants with the head of the family.[85]

Many feminists (especially scholars and activists) have called for culture repositioning as a method for deconstructing patriarchy. Culture repositioning relates to culture change. It involves the reconstruction of the cultural concept of a society.[86] Prior to the widespread use of the term patriarchy, early feminists used male chauvinism and sexism to refer roughly to the same phenomenon.[87] Author bell hooks argues that the new term identifies the ideological system itself (that men claim dominance and superiority to women) that can be believed and acted upon by either men or women, whereas the earlier terms imply only men act as oppressors of women.[87]

Sociologist Joan Acker, analyzing the concept of patriarchy and the role that it has played in the development of feminist thought, says that seeing patriarchy as a "universal, trans-historical and trans-cultural phenomenon" where "women were everywhere oppressed by men in more or less the same ways […] tended toward a biological essentialism."[88]

Anna Pollert has described use of the term patriarchy as circular and conflating description and explanation. She remarks the discourse on patriarchy creates a "theoretical impasse ... imposing a structural label on what it is supposed to explain" and therefore impoverishes the possibility of explaining gender inequalities.[89]

Biological theories

edit
Main articles: Sex differences in humans and Social construction of gender difference

Studies of male sexual coercion and female resistance in nonhuman primates (for example, chimpanzees[90][91]) suggest that sexual conflicts of interest underlying the patriarchy precede the emergence of the human species.[92] However, the extent of male power over females varies greatly across different primate species.[92] Among bonobos (a close relative of humans), for example, male coercion of females is rarely, if ever, observed,[92] and bonobos are widely considered to be matriarchal in their social structure.[93][94][95]

There is also considerable variation in the role that gender plays in human societies, and there is no academic consensus on to what extent biology determines human social structure. The Encyclopædia Britannica states that "...many cultures bestow power preferentially on one sex or the other...."[96] Some anthropologists, such as Floriana Ciccodicola, have argued that patriarchy is a cultural universal,[97] and the masculinities scholar David Buchbinder suggests that Roland Barthes' description of the term ex-nomination, i.e. patriarchy as the 'norm' or common sense, is relevant.[98][clarification needed] However, there do exist cultures that some anthropologists have described as matriarchal. Among the Mosuo (a tiny society in Yunnan Province, China), for example, women exert greater power, authority, and control over decision-making.[66] Other societies are matrilinear or matrilocal, primarily among indigenous tribal groups.[99] Some hunter-gatherer groups, such as the !Kung of southern Africa,[7] have been characterized as largely egalitarian.[34]

Some proponents[who?] of the biological determinist understanding of patriarchy argue that because of human female biology, women are more fit to perform roles such as anonymous child-rearing at home, rather than high-profile decision-making roles, such as leaders in battles. Through this basis, "the existence of a sexual division of labor in primitive societies is a starting point as much for purely social accounts of the origins of patriarchy as for biological."[69]: 157 [verification needed] Hence, the rise of patriarchy is recognized through this apparent "sexual division".[69][verification needed]

Evolutionary biology

edit

An early theory in evolutionary biology, sometimes referred to as Bateman's principle, argues that females almost always invest more energy into producing offspring than males, and therefore, females are a limiting factor over which males of most species will compete. This idea suggests that females prefer males who control more resources that can help her and her offspring, which in turn causes an evolutionary pressure on males to be competitive with each other in order to gain resources and power.[100]

Sociobiologist Steven Goldberg argues that social behavior is primarily determined by genetics, and thus that patriarchy arises more as a result of inherent biology than social conditioning. Goldberg contends that patriarchy is a universal feature of human culture. In 1973, Goldberg wrote, "The ethnographic studies of every society that has ever been observed explicitly state that these feelings were present, there is literally no variation at all."[101] Goldberg has critics among anthropologists. Concerning Goldberg's claims about the "feelings of both men and women", Eleanor Leacock countered in 1974 that the data on women's attitudes are "sparse and contradictory", and that the data on male attitudes about male–female relations are "ambiguous". Also, the effects of colonialism on the cultures represented in the studies were not considered.[102]

Anthropologist and psychologist Barbara Smuts argues that patriarchy evolved in humans through conflict between the respective reproductive interests of males and females. She lists six ways it may have emerged:[92][further explanation needed]

  1. a reduction in female allies
  2. elaboration of male-male alliances
  3. increased male control over resources
  4. increased hierarchy formation among men
  5. female strategies that reinforce male control over females
  6. the evolution of language and its power to create ideology.

Psychoanalytic theories

edit

While the term patriarchy often refers to male domination generally, another interpretation sees it as literally "rule of the father".[103] So some people[who?] believe patriarchy does not refer simply to male power over women, but the expression of power dependent on age as well as gender, such as by older men over women, children, and younger men. Some of these younger men may inherit and therefore have a stake in continuing these conventions. Others may rebel.[104][105][further explanation needed]

This psychoanalytic model is based upon revisions of Freud's description of the normally neurotic family using the analogy of the story of Oedipus.[106][107] Those who fall outside the Oedipal triad of mother/father/child are less subject to male authority.[108]

The operations of power in such cases are usually enacted unconsciously. All are subject, even fathers are bound by its strictures.[109] It is represented in unspoken traditions and conventions performed in everyday behaviors, customs, and habits.[103] The triangular relationship of a father, a mother and an inheriting eldest son frequently form the dynamic and emotional narratives of popular culture and are enacted performatively in rituals of courtship and marriage.[110] They provide conceptual models for organising power relations in spheres that have nothing to do with the family, for example, politics and business.[111][112][113]

Arguing from this standpoint, radical feminist Shulamith Firestone wrote in her 1970 The Dialectic of Sex:

Marx was on to something more profound than he knew when he observed that the family contained within itself in embryo all the antagonisms that later develop on a wide scale within the society and the state. For unless revolution uproots the basic social organisation, the biological family – the vinculum through which the psychology of power can always be smuggled – the tapeworm of exploitation will never be annihilated.[114]

Gender Inequality today

edit

According to United Nations, $6.4 trillion the estimated annual requirement for certain sectors in 48 developing countries. This accounts for almost 70% of the world's population in developing countries.[115] The President of the General Assembly, Dennis Francis emphasized the need to reverse the prediction of 340 million women in extreme poverty by 2030 due to the finding of one in every ten women currently living in extreme poverty. Women are also being _targeted in places like Palestine, Ukraine, and Haiti, as he stated that credible evidence of sexual abuse was found.[116] Sexual violence impacts individuals of all genders, though women are disproportionately affected. Additionally, most perpetrators are male, which some view as reinforcing traditional power structures associated with patriarchy.[116]

Sima Bahouse, the Executive director of the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women, emphasized the urgent need to eliminate poverty for women and girls, advocating for inclusive fiscal policies that promote equitable redistribution and progressive taxation.[115] Key priorities include enhancing public services and creating gender-responsive social protection systems that specifically benefit women and girls in poverty. Investing in the care economy is highlighted as essential for alleviating their poverty and fostering sustainable economic growth. The speaker rejected excuses about the difficulty or cost of these initiatives, asserting that a fair and sustainable future for all women and girls is achievable.[115]

Impact of Patriarchy on Mental Health

edit

The patriarchal framework of gender norms has established specific behavioral expectations for individuals according to their biological sex. Some individuals may not desire to adhere to the strict "acceptable behaviors" or gender boundaries set by society, which could be traumatic for some. These individuals are excluded and faced with alienation, making them more vulnerable to sexual violence.[116] For example, LGBTQ+ members frequently fall victim to sexual abuse and harassment. Consequently, a patriarchal society creates an inherently unsafe and harmful environment for non-conforming women and those who do not adhere to rigid societal norms of gender and sexuality. While this power disparity is often perceived as primarily benefiting men, it also poses hidden risks to their psychological well-being.[116]

With social media being very present today, individuals are increasingly susceptible to the negative impacts of patriarchy on their mental health. The internet has facilitated the spread of gender-based discrimination, reinforced patriarchal norms, and propagated negative representations of women. Research has shown that "social media use may be linked to adverse mental health effects, such as suicidal thoughts, feelings of loneliness, and reduced empathy".[116] For instance, social media platforms often feature curated images that promote unrealistic body standards or lifestyles, leading to feelings of comparison, jealousy, and anxiety among users.

See also

edit

Patriarchal models

edit
edit

Comparable social models

edit

Contrast

edit

References

edit
  1. ^ "Definition of PATRIARCHY". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. 3 June 2023.
  2. ^ "patriarchy". Britannica. 2 June 2023.
  3. ^ "Meaning of patriarchy in English". Cambridge Dictionary.
  4. ^ a b Green, Fiona Joy (2010). "Patriarchal Ideology of Motherhood". In O'Reilly, Andrea (ed.). Encyclopedia of Motherhood, Volume 3. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SAGE Publications. pp. 969–970. ISBN 978-1-4129-6846-1.
  5. ^ a b c Henslin, James M. (2001). Essentials of Sociology. Taylor & Francis. pp. 65–67, 240. ISBN 978-0-536-94185-5.
  6. ^ Malti-Douglas, Fedwa (2007). Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender. Detroit: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-02-865960-2.
  7. ^ a b c d Lockard, Craig (2015). Societies, Networks, and Transitions: A Global History (3rd ed.). Stamford, Conn.: Cengage Learning. p. 88. ISBN 978-1-285-78312-3. Today, as in the past, men generally hold political, economic, and religious power in most societies thanks to patriarchy, a system whereby men largely control women and children, shape ideas about appropriate gender behavior, and generally dominate society.
  8. ^ Pateman, Carole (2016). "Sexual Contract". In Naples, Nancy A. (ed.). The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Gender and Sexuality Studies, Volume 5. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 1–3. doi:10.1002/9781118663219.wbegss468. ISBN 978-1-4051-9694-9. The heyday of the patriarchal structures analyzed in The Sexual Contract extended from the 1840s to the late 1970s [...] Nevertheless, men's government of women is one of the most deeply entrenched of all power structures
  9. ^ Ferguson, Kathy E. (1999). "Patriarchy". In Tierney, Helen (ed.). Women's Studies Encyclopedia, Volume 2 (revised and expanded ed.). Greenwood Publishing. p. 1048. ISBN 978-0-313-31072-0.
  10. ^ "patriarchy". Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 3 November 2018. Retrieved 4 January 2019.
  11. ^ Harper, Douglas. "patriarchy". Online Etymology Dictionary.
  12. ^ πατριάρχης. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
  13. ^ πατριά. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
  14. ^ πατήρ. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
  15. ^ ἀρχή. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
  16. ^ a b Cannell, Fenella; Green, Sarah (1996). "Patriarchy". In Kuper, Adam; Kuper, Jessica (eds.). The Social Science Encyclopedia (2nd ed.). Taylor & Francis. pp. 592–593. ISBN 978-0-41-510829-4.
  17. ^ a b c Meagher, Michelle (2011). "Patriarchy". In Ritzer, George; Ryan, J. Michael (eds.). The Concise Encyclopedia of Sociology. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 441–442. ISBN 978-1-4051-8353-6.
  18. ^ a b Hennessy, Rosemary (2012). "Patriarchy". In Harrington, A.; Marshall, B.L.; Muller, H. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Social Theory. Routledge. pp. 420–422. ISBN 978-1-13-678694-5.
  19. ^ a b Gardiner, Jean (1999). "Patriarchy". In O'Hara, Phillip A. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Political Economy, Volume 2: L–Z. Routledge. pp. 843–846. ISBN 978-0-41-518718-3.
  20. ^ Fitzpatrick, Tony; et al., eds. (2013). "Patriarchy". International Encyclopedia of Social Policy. Routledge. pp. 987 ff. ISBN 978-1-13-661004-2.
  21. ^ Catalano, D. Chase J.; Griffin, Pat (2016). "Sexism, Heterosexism, and Trans* Oppression: An Integrated Perspective". In Adams, Maurianne; Bell, Lee Anne (eds.). Teaching for Diversity and Social Justice (3rd ed.). New York: Routledge. p. 187. doi:10.4324/9781315775852-8. ISBN 978-1-317-68869-3.
  22. ^ a b Walby, Sylvia (1989). "Theorising Patriarchy". Sociology. 23 (2): 213–234. doi:10.1177/0038038589023002004. JSTOR 42853921. S2CID 220676988. I shall define patriarchy as a system of social structures, and practices in which men dominate, oppress and exploit women.
  23. ^ "Can the patriarchy be matrilineal? An anthropologist calls for clarity | Santa Fe Institute". www.santafe.edu. Santa Fe Institute. 26 August 2019. Retrieved 4 June 2024.
  24. ^ Fortunato, Laura (2 September 2019). "Lineal kinship organization in cross-specific perspective". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 374 (1780): 20190005. doi:10.1098/rstb.2019.0005. ISSN 0962-8436. PMC 6664128. PMID 31303167.
  25. ^ Lewis, Jone Johnson. "Patrilineal vs. Matrilineal Succession: How Does Inheritance Work?". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 4 June 2024. Sometimes, men in matrilineal societies were the ones who inherited, but they did so through their mother's brothers, and passed their own inheritances along to their sisters' children.
  26. ^ a b Wrangham, Richard (2009). Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-01362-3.
  27. ^ a b Betuel, Emma (21 June 2020). "Why ancient men had to evolve from carousers to doting dads — or die". Inverse. Retrieved 11 December 2023.
  28. ^ a b Alger, Ingela; Hooper, Paul L.; Cox, Donald; Stieglitz, Jonathan; Kaplan, Hillard S. (19 May 2020). "Paternal provisioning results from ecological change". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Vol. 117, no. 20. pp. 10746–10754. doi:10.1073/pnas.1917166117. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 7245097. PMID 32358187.
  29. ^ Bradt, Steve (1 June 2009). "Invention of cooking drove evolution of the human species, new book argues". The Harvard Gazette. Retrieved 11 December 2023.
  30. ^ Rehg, Jennifer (2010). "Review of 'Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human'". The Councilor: A Journal of the Social Studies. 71 (1). Article 1.
  31. ^ Herculano-Houzel, Suzana (2016). The Human Advantage: A New Understanding of How Our Brain Became Remarkable. The MIT Press. doi:10.7551/mitpress/9780262034258.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-262-03425-8.[page needed]
  32. ^ Hughes, Sarah Shaver & Hughes Brady (2001). "Women in Ancient Civilizations". In Adas, Michael (ed.). Agricultural and pastoral societies in ancient and classical history. Temple University Press. pp. 118–119. ISBN 978-1-56639-832-9.
  33. ^ Eagly, Alice H. & Wood, Wendy (July 1999). "The Origins of Sex Differences in Human Behavior: Evolved Dispositions Versus Social Roles". American Psychologist. 54 (6): 408–423. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.54.6.408. Archived from the original on 27 May 2012.
  34. ^ a b Erdal, David; Whiten, Andrew (1996). "Egalitarianism and Machiavellian intelligence in human evolution". In Mellars, Paul; Gibson, Kathleen Rita (eds.). Modelling the early human mind. Cambridge McDonald Monograph Series. Cambridge Oakville, Connecticut: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge. ISBN 978-0-9519420-1-7.
  35. ^ a b c Strozier, Robert M. (2002) Foucault, Subjectivity, and Identity: Historical Constructions of Subject and Self p. 46
  36. ^ a b c d Lerner, Gerda (1986). The Creation of Patriarchy. Women and History, Volume 1. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 8–11. ISBN 978-0-19-503996-2.
  37. ^ Kraemer, Sebastian (1991). "The Origins of Fatherhood: An Ancient Family Process". Family Process. 30 (4): 377–392. doi:10.1111/j.1545-5300.1991.00377.x. PMID 1790784.
  38. ^ Ehrenberg, 1989; Harris, M. (1993) The Evolution of Human Gender Hierarchies; Leibowitz, 1983; Lerner, 1986; Sanday, 1981
  39. ^ Bryson, Valerie (2000). "Feminism: Marxist". In Kramarae, Cheris; Spender, Dale (eds.). Routledge International Encyclopedia of Women: Global Women's Issues and Knowledge, Volume 2. New York. p. 791. ISBN 978-0-415-92088-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  40. ^ Lerner, Gerda (1986). The Creation of Patriarchy. Women and History, Volume 1. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 50–53. ISBN 978-0-19-503996-2. But in a situation in which ecological conditions and irregularities in biological reproduction threatened the survival of the group, people would search for more reproducers — that is, women. Thus, the first appropriation of private property consists of the appropriation of the labor of women as reproducers. Aaby concludes: 'The connection between the reification of women on the one hand and the state and private property on the other is exactly the opposite of that posed by Engels and his followers. Without the reification of women as a historically given socio-structural feature, the origin of private property and the state will remain inexplicable.' If we follow Aaby's argument, which I find persuasive, we must conclude that in the course of the agricultural revolution the exploitation of human labor and the sexual exploitation of women become inextricably linked.
  41. ^ Gimbutas, Marija (1992). "The end of Old Europe: the intrusion of Steppe Pastoralists from South Russia and the transformation of Europe". The Civilization of the Goddess: The World of Old Europe. San Francisco, California: Harper Collins. pp. 351–510. ISBN 978-0-06-250337-4.
  42. ^ Taylor, Steven (2005). "What's wrong with human beings?". The Fall: The Insanity of the Ego in Human History. Winchester: O Books. pp. 17–19. ISBN 978-1-905047-20-8.
  43. ^ W.R.M. Lamb (1967). "71E: Meno". Plato in Twelve Volumes. Vol. 3. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Retrieved 9 February 2015.
  44. ^ Fishbein, Harold D. (2002). Peer prejudice and discrimination: the origins of prejudice (2nd ed.). Psychology Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-8058-3772-8.
  45. ^ Dubber, Markus Dirk (2005). The police power: patriarchy and the foundations of American government. Columbia University Press. pp. 5–7. ISBN 978-0-231-13207-7.
  46. ^ Bar On, Bat-Ami (1994). Engendering origins: critical feminist readings in Plato and Aristotle. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-1643-3.
  47. ^ Lerner, Gerda (1986). "Symbols". The Creation of Patriarchy. Women and History, Volume 1. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 199–211. ISBN 978-0-19-503996-2.[page range too broad]
  48. ^ Ptahhotep, trans. John A. Wilson. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to The Old Testament. James B. Pritchard, ed. Princeton University Press, 1950. p. 412
  49. ^ Bristow, John Temple (1991). What Paul Really Said About Women: an Apostle's liberating views on equality in marriage, leadership, and love. New York: HarperOne. ISBN 978-0-06-061063-0.
  50. ^ Gordon, Schochet (2004). "Patriarchy and Paternalism". Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World. Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN 978-0-684-31200-2.
  51. ^ Louis, Chevalier de Jaucourt (Biography) (February 2003). "Encyclopedie, Paternal Authority". Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert – Collaborative Translation Project. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
  52. ^ Durso, Pamela R. (2003). The Power of Woman: The Life and writings of Sarah Moore Grimké (1st ed.). Macon, Ga.: Mercer University Press. pp. 130–138. ISBN 978-0-86554-876-3.
  53. ^ Castro, Ginette (1990). American Feminism: a contemporary history. NYU Press. p. 31.
  54. ^ Storkey, Elaine (2020). Women in a Patriarchal World; Twenty five empowering stories from the Bible (1st ed.). London, UK.: SPCK Publishing. p. 144.
  55. ^ Gossberg, Michael (1985). "A judicial patriarchy: family law at the turn of the century". In Grossberg, Michael (ed.). Governing the hearth: law and the family in nineteenth-century America. Chapel Hill London: The University of North Carolina Press. pp. 289–307. ISBN 978-0-8078-6336-7.
    See also: Gossberg, Michael (1985). "Crossing boundaries: nineteenth-century domestic relations law and the merger of family and legal history". American Bar Foundation Research Journal. 10 (4): 799–847. doi:10.1111/j.1747-4469.1985.tb00520.x.
  56. ^ Ellwood, Robert (1986). "Patriarchal Revolution in Ancient Japan: Episodes from the "Nihonshoki" Sūjin Chronicle". Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion. 2 (2): 23–37. ISSN 8755-4178. JSTOR 25002039.
  57. ^ Adler, Joseph A. (Winter 2006). "Daughter/Wife/Mother or Sage/Immortal/Bodhisattva? Women in the Teaching of Chinese Religions". ASIANetwork Exchange. XIV (2).
  58. ^ Largen, Kristin Johnston (2017). "A Brief Introduction to Confucianism". Finding God Among Our Neighbors: An Interfaith Systematic Theology. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress. pp. 61–88. doi:10.2307/j.ctt1ggjhm3.7. ISBN 978-1-5064-2330-2. JSTOR j.ctt1ggjhm3.7.
  59. ^ Gao, Xiongya (2003). "Women Existing for Men: Confucianism and Social Injustice against Women in China". Race, Gender & Class. 10 (3): 114–125. JSTOR 41675091.
  60. ^ Goldin, Paul R. (2005). "Ban Zhao in Her Time and in Ours". After Confucius: Studies in Early Chinese Philosophy. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. pp. 112–118. ISBN 978-0-8248-2842-4. JSTOR j.ctt1wn0qtj.11.
  61. ^ Bray, Francesca (1997). Technology and Gender: Fabrics of Power in Late Imperial China. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-91900-6. OCLC 42922667.
  62. ^ Lin, Yutang (2011) [1935]. My Country and My People. Oxford City Press. ISBN 978-1-84902-664-2. OCLC 744466115.
  63. ^ Waltner, Ann (1981). "Widows and Remarriage in Ming and Early Qing China". Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques. 8 (3): 129–146. JSTOR 41298764.
  64. ^ Ruskola, Teemu (1994). "Law, Sexual Morality, and Gender Equality in Qing and Communist China". The Yale Law Journal. 103 (8): 2531–2565. doi:10.2307/797055. JSTOR 797055.
  65. ^ Jimmerson, Julie (Winter 1991). "Female Infanticide in China: An Examination of Cultural and Legal Norms". Pacific Basin Law Journal. 8: 33 – via eScholarship.org.
  66. ^ a b Macionis, John J. (2012). Sociology (13th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-205-18109-0
  67. ^ Sanderson, Stephen K. (2001). The Evolution of Human Sociality. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 198. ISBN 978-0-8476-9534-8.
  68. ^ Macionis, John J.; Plummer, Ken (2000). Sociology: A Global Introduction. Harlow: Prentice Hall. p. 347. ISBN 978-0-13-040737-5.
  69. ^ a b c d e f g Lewontin, Richard C.; Rose, Steven; Kamin, Leon J. (1984). "The determined patriarchy". Not in our genes: biology, ideology, and human nature. New York: Pantheon Books. pp. 132–163. ISBN 978-0-14-022605-8. OCLC 10348941.
  70. ^ a b Coney, Sandra (1994). The menopause industry: how the medical establishment exploits women. Alameda, California: Hunter House. ISBN 978-0-89793-161-8.
  71. ^ "How the appliance boom moved more women into the workforce". Penn Today. 30 January 2019.
  72. ^ de V. Cavalcanti, Tiago V.; Tavares, José (2008). "Assessing the "Engines of Liberation": Home Appliances and Female Labor Force Participation". The Review of Economics and Statistics. 90 (1): 81–88. doi:10.1162/rest.90.1.81. ISSN 0034-6535. JSTOR 40043126. S2CID 9870721.
  73. ^ "Taming the Cycle: How Does the Pill Work?". Science in the News. Harvard Medical School. 15 March 2008. Retrieved 17 February 2021.
  74. ^ Pierek, B. T. "A History of Patriarchy?". Leiden University.
  75. ^ Gupta, Mayank; Madabushi, Jayakrishna S.; Gupta, Nihit; Gupta, Mayank; Madabushi, Jayakrishna S.; Gupta, Nihit (10 June 2023). "Critical Overview of Patriarchy, Its Interferences With Psychological Development, and Risks for Mental Health". Cureus. 15 (6): e40216. doi:10.7759/cureus.40216. ISSN 2168-8184. PMC 10332384. PMID 37435274.
  76. ^ "Feminism | Definition, History, Types, Waves, Examples, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 17 September 2024. Retrieved 25 October 2024.
  77. ^ "Sylvia Walby: Six Structures of Patriarchy - ReviseSociology". revisesociology.com. 10 January 2017. Retrieved 25 October 2024.
  78. ^ "When Could Women Open A Bank Account? – Forbes Advisor". www.forbes.com. Retrieved 25 October 2024.
  79. ^ a b Lerner, Gerda (1986). The Creation of Patriarchy. Women and History, Volume 1. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 238–239. ISBN 978-0-19-503996-2. In its narrow meaning, patriarchy refers to the system, historically derived from Greek and Roman law, in which the male head of the household had absolute legal and economic power over his dependent female and male family members. [...] Patriarchy in its wider definition means the manifestation and institutionalization of male dominance over women and children in the family and the extension of male dominance over women in society in general.
  80. ^ a b Tong, Rosemarie; Botts, Tina Fernandes (2017). Feminist Thought: A More Comprehensive Introduction (Fifth ed.). New York. ISBN 978-0-8133-5070-7. OCLC 979993556.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)[page needed]
  81. ^ Hartmann, Heidi. "The Unhappy Marriage of Marxism and Feminism". Capital and Class. 8: 1.
  82. ^ a b c "Lindsey German: Theories of Patriarchy (Spring 1981)". www.marxists.org. Retrieved 18 March 2020.
  83. ^ David A. J. Richards (5 February 2014). Resisting Injustice and the Feminist Ethics of Care in the Age of Obama: "Suddenly ... All the Truth Was Coming Out". Routledge Research in American Politics and Governance. p. 143. ISBN 978-1-135-09970-1. Retrieved 11 February 2015. Feminism, as I understand it, arises in resistance to the gender binary enforced by the patriarchy, an injustice that is as harmful to men as it is to women, as we can see in the long history of unjust wars, rationalized by patriarchy, in which men have fought and been killed and injured and traumatized.
  84. ^ Tickner, Ann J. (2001). "Patriarchy". Routledge Encyclopedia of International Political Economy: Entries P-Z. Taylor & Francis. pp. 1197–1198. ISBN 978-0-415-24352-0.
  85. ^ Montiel, Aimée Vega (8 October 2014). "Violence against Women and Media: Advancements and Challenges of a Research and Political Agenda". UNESCO.
  86. ^ Chigbu, Uchendu Eugene (2015). "Repositioning culture for development: women and development in a Nigerian rural community". Community, Work & Family. 18 (3): 334–350. doi:10.1080/13668803.2014.981506. S2CID 144448501.
  87. ^ a b hooks, bell (2004). "Understanding patriarchy". The will to change: men, masculinity, and love. Washington Square Press. pp. 17–25. ISBN 978-0-7434-8033-8. Patriarchy is a political-social system that insists that males are inherently dominating, superior to everything and everyone deemed weak, especially females, and endowed with the right to dominate and rule over the weak and to maintain that dominance through various forms of psychological terrorism and violence.
  88. ^ Acker, Joan (1989). "The Problem with Patriarchy". Sociology. 23 (2): 235. doi:10.1177/0038038589023002005. S2CID 143683720.
  89. ^ Pollert, Anna (1996). "Gender and Class Revisited, or the Poverty of 'Patriarchy'". Sociology. 30 (4): 235. doi:10.1177/0038038596030004002. S2CID 145758809.
  90. ^ Feldblum, Joseph T.; Wroblewski, Emily E.; Rudicell, Rebecca S.; Hahn, Beatrice H.; Paiva, Thais; Cetinkaya-Rundel, Mine; Pusey, Anne E.; Gilby, Ian C. (December 2014). "Sexually coercive male chimpanzees sire more offspring". Current Biology. 24 (23): 2855–2860. Bibcode:2014CBio...24.2855F. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2014.10.039. PMC 4905588. PMID 25454788.
  91. ^ Thompson, ME (2014). "Sexual Conflict: Nice Guys Finish Last". Current Biology. 24 (23): R1125–R1127. Bibcode:2014CBio...24R1125T. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2014.10.056. PMID 25465331.
  92. ^ a b c d Smuts, B (1995). "The evolutionary origins of patriarchy". Human Nature. 6 (1): 1–32. doi:10.1007/BF02734133. PMID 24202828. S2CID 17741169.
  93. ^ Sommer, Volker; Bauer, Jan; Fowler, Andrew; Ortmann, Sylvia (2010). "Patriarchal Chimpanzees, Matriarchal Bonobos: Potential Ecological Causes of a Pan Dichotomy". Primates of Gashaka. Springer. pp. 469–501. ISBN 978-1-4419-7402-0.
  94. ^ Bosson, Jennifer Katherine; Vandello, Joseph Alan; Buckner, Camille E. (27 February 2018). The Psychology of Sex and Gender. SAGE Publications. p. 185. ISBN 978-1-5063-3132-4.
  95. ^ Angier, Natalie (10 September 2016). "In the Bonobo World, Female Camaraderie Prevails". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 7 May 2022.
  96. ^ "Matriarchy". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2018. Retrieved 23 June 2018.
  97. ^ Ciccodicola, Floriana (2012). Practicing anthropology in development processes: new perspectives for a radical anthropology. Roma: Edizioni Nuova Cultura. p. 160. ISBN 978-88-6134-791-5.
  98. ^ Buchbinder, David (2013). "Troubling patriarchy". Studying men and masculinities. Abingdon, Oxon, UK; New York, N.Y.: Routledge. pp. 106–107. ISBN 978-0-415-57829-5.
  99. ^ Schlegel, Alice (1972). Male dominance and female autonomy: domestic authority in matrilineal societies. New Haven, Connecticut: HRAF Press. ISBN 978-0-87536-328-8.
  100. ^ Buss, David Michael; Schmitt, David P. (May 2011). "Evolutionary psychology and feminism". Sex Roles. 64 (9–10): 768–787. doi:10.1007/s11199-011-9987-3. S2CID 7878675.
  101. ^ Goldberg, Steven (1974). The inevitability of patriarchy. New York: W. Morrow. ISBN 978-0-688-05175-4.
  102. ^ Leacock, Eleanor (June 1974). "Reviewed Work: The Inevitability of Patriarchy by Steven Goldberg". American Anthropologist. 76 (2): 363–365. doi:10.1525/aa.1974.76.2.02a00280. JSTOR 674209.
  103. ^ a b Mitchell, Juliet (1974). "The cultural revolution". Psychoanalysis and feminism. New York: Pantheon Books. p. 409. ISBN 978-0-394-47472-4.
  104. ^ Eherenreich, Barbara (1992). "Life without father". In McDowell, Linda; Pringle, Rosemary (eds.). Defining women: Social institutions and gender divisions. London: Polity/Open University. ISBN 978-0-7456-0979-9.
  105. ^ Cockburn, Cynthia (1991). Brothers: male dominance and technological change. London Concord, Massachusetts: Pluto. ISBN 978-0-7453-0583-7.
  106. ^ Lacan, Jaques (2001) [1977]. "The mirror stage as formative of the function of the I as revealed in psychoanalytic experience (1949)". In Sheridan, Alan (ed.). Écrits: a selection. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-25392-5.
  107. ^ Mulvey, Laura (2009). "The Oedipus myth: beyond the riddles of the Sphinx". Visual and other pleasures (2nd ed.). Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire England New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 177–200. ISBN 978-0-230-57646-9.
  108. ^ Butler, Judith (2000). Antigone's claim: kinship between life and death. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-11895-8.
  109. ^ Dalton, Penelope (2008). "Complex family relations". Family and other relations: a thesis examining the extent to which family relationships shape the relations of art (PhD thesis). University of Plymouth. hdl:10026.1/758.
  110. ^ Dalton, Pen (2001). "Theoretical perspectives" (PDF). The gendering of art education: modernism, identity, and critical feminism. Buckingham England Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Open University. pp. 9–32. ISBN 978-0-335-19649-4.
  111. ^ Hofstede, Geert; Hofstede, Gert Jan (2005). Cultures and organizations: software of the mind. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-143959-6.
  112. ^ Tierney, Margaret (1995). "Negotiating a software career: informal work practices and 'the lads' in a software installation". In Gill, Rosalind; Grint, Keith (eds.). The gender-technology relation: contemporary theory and research. London Bristol, Pennsylvania: Taylor & Francis. pp. 192–209. ISBN 978-0-7484-0161-1.
  113. ^ Roper, Michael (1994). Masculinity and the British organization man since 1945. Oxford New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-825693-9.
  114. ^ Firestone, Shulamith (1970). The dialectic of sex: the case for feminist revolution. New York: Quill. ISBN 978-0-688-12359-8.
  115. ^ a b c "'Patriarchy Is Regaining Ground', Secretary-General Warns, while Women's, Girls' Rights Face Unprecedented Threat, as Commission Opens 2024 Session".
  116. ^ a b c d e Gupta, Mayank; Madabushi, Jayakrishna S.; Gupta, Nihit; Gupta, Mayank; Madabushi, Jayakrishna S.; Gupta, Nihit (2023). "Critical Overview of Patriarchy, Its Interferences With Psychological Development, and Risks for Mental Health". Cureus. 15 (6): e40216. doi:10.7759/cureus.40216. PMC 10332384. PMID 37435274.

Further reading

edit
:Cited in:
edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Patriarchy&oldid=1259570100"
  NODES
chat 2
Community 2
deepl 1
ELIZA 1
HOME 15
Idea 13
idea 13
Intern 5
languages 1
mac 12
Note 1
OOP 2
os 80
text 4
Theorie 10
Users 2
visual 1
web 1