St. Paul the Apostle, the "Apostle to the Gentiles" was, together with Saint Peter and James the Just, the most notable of Early Christian missionaries. Unlike the Twelve Apostles, there is no indication that Paul ever met Jesus prior crucifixion. According to Luke's record of the events following Jesus' crucifixion, known as the Acts of the Apostles, his conversion took place as he was travelling the road to Damascus, and experienced a vision of the resurrected Jesus. Paul asserts that he received the Gospel not from man, but by "the revelation of Jesus Christ". Fourteen epistles in the New Testament are traditionally attributed to Paul. These epistles were circulated within the Christian community. They were prominent in the first New Testamentcanon ever proposed (by Marcion), and they were eventually included in the orthodox Christian canon. They are believed to be the earliest-written books of the New Testament. Paul's influence on Christian thinking arguably has been more significant than any other New Testament author, demonstrably from St. Augustine of Hippo to the controversies between Gottschalk and Hincmar of Reims; between Thomism and Molinism; Martin Luther, John Calvin and the Arminians; to Jansenism and the Jesuit theologians, and even to the German church of the twentieth century through the writings of the scholar Karl Barth, whose commentary on the Letter to the Romans had a political as well as theological impact.
The Masoretic Text (MT) is the Hebrew text of the Jewish Bible (Tanakh). It defines not just the books of the Jewish canon, but also the precise letter-text of the biblical books in Judaism, as well as their vocalization and accentuation for both public reading and private study. The MT is also widely used as the basis for translations of the Old Testament in Protestant Bibles, and in recent decades also for Catholic Bibles. The MT was primarily copied, edited and distributed by a group of Jews known as the Masoretes between the seventh and tenth centuries AD. Though the consonants differ little from the text generally accepted in the early second century (and also differ little from some Qumran texts that are even older), it has numerous differences of both greater and lesser significance when compared to (extant 4th century) manuscripts of the Septuagint, a 3rd to 2nd centuries BC Greek translation in popular use in Egypt and Palestine and often quoted in the Christian New Testament. The Hebrew word mesorah refers to the transmission of a tradition. In a very broad sense it can refer to the entire chain of Jewish tradition (see Oral law), but in reference to the masoretic text the word mesorah specifically means the diacritic markings of the text and concise marginal notes in manuscripts (and later printings) which note textual details, usually about the precise spelling of words. The oldest manuscripts containing substantial parts of the Masoretic Text known to still exist date from approximately the ninth century AD, and the Aleppo Codex (pictured), the oldest complete copy of the Masoretic Text in one manuscript, dates from the tenth century.
Feeding the multitude (also known as The miracle of the loaves and fish) is the name of two miracles attributed to Jesus, the first of which is reported by all four of the canonicalGospels of the Christianreligion (Matthew 14:13–21, Mark 6:31-44, Luke 9:10-17 and John 6:5-15), while the second is reported by Mark (8) and Matthew (15) but neither Luke nor John. The first is the only miracle (apart from the resurrection) present in both the narrative of the Gospel of John and that of the Synoptic Gospels. According to the narrative of the Gospels, the first event happened after Jesus had been teaching in an area away from the towns, and insists that the people be fed where they are, rather than sending them to the nearest towns. The Synoptics state that the location was a "desert place" near Bethsaida, while John does not state a specific location, only specifying that it was very grassy. The canonical Gospels all report that, upon investigating the provisions of the crowd, the disciples were only able to find 5 loaves of bread and 2 fish, and the Gospel of John adds that these came from a single boy in the crowd. The Gospels state that Jesus blessed the food, broke it, and gave it to the disciples, who distributed it to the people present - 5000 not counting women and children - all of them being fed. The Gospels also state that after the meal was over, the disciples collected the scraps, filling 12 baskets. The second event, according to Mark and Matthew, occurred when Jesus was teaching a crowd of about 4000, not including women and children, in a remote location. Like before, Jesus is described as taking the few provisions available, and giving grace, before distributing them amongst the crowd. In this event there are 7 loaves and an unspecified number of fish, and 7 baskets of scraps are collected. (more...)
The Tanakh (Hebrew: תנ״ך) (also Tanach, [taˈnax] or [təˈnax], Tenakh or Tenak) is the Hebrew name of the Bible used in Judaism. It is a notariqon or acronym formed from the initial Hebrew letters of the Tanakh's three traditional subdivisions: Torah, Nevi'im and Ketuvim - hence TaNaKh. It is incorporated in the Christian Bibles, where, with some variations and additions, it is called the Old Testament. The Tanakh counts as one book what are sometimes counted as two in Christian Bibles (e.g. 1 and 2 Samuel, 1 and 2 Kings and so forth), and counts as one book all the twelve "Books" of the Twelve Prophets ("Trei Asar"). According to the Talmud, much of the contents the Tanakh were compiled by the Men of the Great Assembly ("Anshei K'nesset HaGedolah") a task completed in 450 BC, and have remained unchanged since that date. The Hebrew written text originally consisted only of consonants, together with some applied vowel letters used as vowels (matres lectionis). During the early Middle Ages Masoretes created a single formalized system. This was chiefly done by the Family Ben Asher, in the Tiberius school, based on the oral tradition for reading the Tanakh. It also included some of Ben Naftali and Babylonian innovations. These were codified in what is referred to as the Ben Asher System. It should be pointed out though, that while this was only codified much later, the pronunciation and cantillation is from an ancient source, since it is impossible to read the text without knowing pronunciation and cantillation pauses. The combination of a text (מקרא), pronunciation (ניקוד) and cantillation (טעמים) enable the reader to understand both the simple meaning, and the nuances in sentence flow of the text. (more...)
Isaac is the son of Abraham and Sarah, and the father of Jacob and Esau. He was the longest-lived of the patriarchs, and the only biblical patriarch whose name was not changed. He is mentioned by name more than 70 times in the book of Genesis but only 33 times elsewhere. Chapters 17-28 of Genesis contain the stories of Isaac. Abraham was 100 years old when Isaac was born.
God gave the news of the birth of Isaac to Abraham and Sarah. Sarah was beyond the age of having children and privately laughed at the prediction. God tested Abraham by commanding him to sacrifice his son. Without murmuring, Isaac let Abraham bind him and lay him upon the altar. At the last minute, an angel of the Lord prevented him from doing so. Abraham sent his steward to find a wife for Isaac. Rebekah was sent and became his wife. She was barren, so Isaac prayed for her. She gave birth to twin boys, Esau and Jacob. Isaac favoured Esau, and Rebekah Jacob. A famine obligated Isaac to move to Gerar, where Abimelech was king. As his father had done, he referred to Rebekah as his sister, but Abimelech discovered the deception. As Isaac grew very rich, the Philistines of Gerar became envious, so he eventually returned to Beersheba. Here the Lord renewed the promise of blessing him. When Isaac was 137 years old and blind, he called Esau, his eldest son, to bring venison. While Esau was hunting, Jacob misrepresented himself as Esau and obtained his father's blessing. The New Testament contains few references to Isaac. In Galatians 4:21-30, Paul contrasted Isaac (symbolizing Christianity) with the rejected older son Ishmael (symbolizing Judaism). James 2:21-24 argues that the sacrifice of Isaac shows that justification requires both faith and works. Hebrews 2:19 views the release of Isaac from sacrifice as analogous to the resurrection of Jesus. (more...)
Amalek, according to the genealogy in Genesis 36:12; 1 Chronicles 1:36, was a son of Esau's son Eliphaz and of the concubineTimna, a Horite and sister of Lotan. Gen. 36:16 refers to him as the "chief of Amalek" thus his name can be understood to be a title derived from that of the Edomite clan or territory over which he ruled. Indeed an extra-Biblical tradition recorded by Nachmanides relates that the Amalekites were not descended from the grandson of Esau but from a man named Amalek after whom this grandson was later named. Such an eponymous ancestor of the Amalekites is also mentioned in Old Arabian poetry. In the Pentateuch, the Amalekites were nomads who attacked the Hebrews at Rephidim in the desert of Sinai during their exodus from Egypt: "smiting the hindmost, all that were feeble behind," (1 Samuel 15:2). They also attacked the Israelites at Hormah (Num. 14:45). Saul and his army destroyed most of the people, and earned Samuel's wrath for leaving some of the people and livestock alive (1 Sam. 15:8-9) against the Lord's command. Saul and the tribal leaders also hesitated to kill the king Agag, so Samuel executed the Amalekite king himself. David waged a sacred war of extermination against the Amalekites, who may have subsequently disappeared from history. Long after, in the time of Hezekiah, five hundred Simeonites annihilated the last remnant "of the Amalekites that had escaped" on Mount Seir, and settled in their place (1 Chr. 4:42-43). (more...)
Bethlehem is a Palestinian city in the central West Bank, approximately 10 kilometers (6.2 mi) south of Jerusalem, with a population of about 30,000 people. It is the capital of the Bethlehem Governorate of the Palestinian National Authority and a hub of Palestinian culture and tourism. According to the New Testament, Bethlehem is the birthplace of Jesus of Nazareth. The town is inhabited by one of the oldest Christian communities in the world, though the size of the community has shrunk in recent years due to emigration. The city is also believed to be the birthplace of David and the location where he was crowned as the king of Israel. Modern Bethlehem has a Muslim majority but is also home to one of the largest Palestinian Christian communities. The Bethlehem agglomeration includes the towns of Beit Jala and Beit Sahour, as well as the refugee camps of 'Aida and Azza. Bethlehem's dominant economic sector is tourism which is particularly high during the Christmas season as the city is a Christian pilgrimage center, being home of the Church of the Nativity. Bethlehem has over thirty hotels and three hundred handicraft work shops, employing several of the city's residents. Rachel's Tomb, an important Jewish holy site, is located at the entrance of Bethlehem. (more...)
Alcoholic beverages appear repeatedly in biblical literature – from Noah planting a vineyard and getting drunk to Jesus miraculously making copious amounts of wine at the wedding at Cana and later incorporating wine as part of the central rite of Christianity, the Eucharist. Wine is the most common alcoholic beverage mentioned in biblical literature, where it is a frequent source of symbolism, and was an important part of daily life in biblical times. The inhabitants of ancient Palestine also drank beer and wines made from fruits other than grapes. On the whole, biblical literature displays an ambivalence toward intoxicating drinks, considering them both a blessing from God that brings joy and merriment and potentially dangerous beverages that can be unwisely and sinfully abused. Biblical interpreters generally agree that the Hebrew and Christian scriptures condemn ordinary drunkenness as a serious spiritual and moral failing. Certain persons were forbidden in the Hebrew Bible to partake of wine because of their vows and duties. Kings were forbidden to abuse alcohol lest their judgments be unjust. It was forbidden to priests on duty, though the priests were given "the finest new wine" from the first fruits offerings for drinking outside the tabernacle and temple. The Naziritic vow excluded not only wine, but also vinegar, grapes, and raisins, though when Nazirites completed the term of their vow, they were required to present wine as part of their sacrificial offerings and could drink of it. While John the Baptist adopted such a regimen, Jesus evidently did not during his three years of ministry depicted in the Gospels. (more...)
Leviathan is a Biblicalsea monster referred to in the Old Testament. The word leviathan appears in five places in the Bible, with the Book of Job, chapter 41, being dedicated to describing Leviathan in detail:
Book of Job 3:8 "May those who curse days curse that day, those who are ready to rouse Leviathan "; NIV
Book of Job 41: "Can you pull in the leviathan with a fishhook or tie down his tongue with a rope? Can you put a cord through his nose or pierce his jaw with a hook? ...Can you fill his hide with harpoons or his head with fishing spears?" NIV
Psalms 74:14: "It was you who crushed the heads of Leviathan and gave him as food to the creatures of the desert." NLT
Psalms 104:24-26: "O Lord, what a variety of things you have made! In wisdom you have made them all. The earth is full of your creatures. Here is the ocean, vast and wide, teeming with life of every kind, both large and small. See the ships sailing along, and Leviathan, which you made to play in the sea. NLT
Isaiah 27:1: "In that day the LORD with His severe sword, great and strong, Will punish Leviathan the fleeing serpent, Leviathan that twisted serpent; And He will slay the reptile that is in the sea." NKJV (more...)
The Bible has been translated into many languages from the biblical languages of Hebrew and Greek. The very first translation of the Hebrew Bible was into Greek, the Septuagint (LXX), which later became the received text of the Old Testament in the church and the basis of its canon. The Latin Vulgate by Jerome was based upon the Hebrew for those books of the Bible preserved in the Jewish canon (as reflected in the masoretic text), and on the Greek text for the rest. Other ancient Jewish translations, such as the Aramaic Targums, conform closely to masoretic text of the Hebrew Bible, and all medieval and modern Jewish translations are based upon the same. Christian translations also tend to be based upon the Hebrew, though some denominations prefer the Septuagint (or may cite variant readings from both). Bible translations incorporating modern textual criticism usually begin with the masoretic text, but also take into account possible variants from all available ancient versions. The received text of the ChristianNew Testament is in Koine Greek, and nearly all translations are based upon the Greek text. The Latin Vulgate was dominant in Christianity through the Middle Ages. Since then, the Bible has been translated into many more languages. English Bible translations in particular have a rich and varied history of more than a millennium. (more...)
Joshua supposedly lived sometime in the late Bronze Age, around 1200 BC. However, he is associated with problems concerning the evidence for the Exodus from Egypt. Various reconstructions of the Biblical data about the Exodus have not yet matched the archeological evidence. Accordingly, some archeologists dispute the historicity of the many details in the Biblical account of the Exodus and treat it as legendary embellishments of an earlier (still unidentified) event. However, others have taken the account to be legitimate and have based their scholarship on this, including Richard A. Gabriel who has viewed Biblical narratives from what he calls a "military" perspective, including the conquest of Canaan by Joshua. Still others refer to the ancient letters of appeal by Canaanite leaders to Egypt seeking assistance against the invasion of the Hapiru (see Amarna letters), who may or may not be the ancient Hebrews. (more...)
Joseph is one of the best-known figures in the Torah and a major figure in the Book of Genesis in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament). He was Jacob's eleventh son and Rachel's first. Joseph is famous for his coat of many colors and his God-given ability to interpret dreams. Due to jealousy, his brother Judah sold him into slavery for 20 pieces of silver. Eventually he worked under the Egyptian official Potiphar, but was freed and became the chief adviser (vizier) to the EgyptianPharaoh, allegedly during either the Hyksos Era or, according to Kenneth Kitchen, the Middle Kingdom of Egypt. He lived to the age of one hundred and ten, and saw his great-grandchildren grow up. Before his death, he made the children of Israel take an oath that when they left the land of Egypt they would take his bones with them. His body was embalmed and placed temporarily in a coffin. At the Exodus his bones accompanied Moses, and were finally buried in Shechem. The shrine called Joseph's Tomb in Nablus/Shechem is traditionally considered to be his tomb. (more...)
