Wikipedia

Religious views on masturbation

Among the world's religions, views on masturbation vary widely. Some religions view it as a spiritually detrimental practice, some see it as not spiritually detrimental and others take a situational view. Among these latter religions, some view masturbation as allowable if used as a means towards sexual self-control, or as part of healthy self-exploration, but disallow it if it is done with motives they consider to be wrong, or as an addiction. A 2016 Psychology Today article stated that the more religious people are, the more likely they are to restrict their sexual fantasies, have fewer sex partners, use less pornography and express stronger disapproval of the use of sex toys.[1]

Abrahamic religions

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Biblical scholarship

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Most scholars have held that there are no explicit prescriptions in the Bible about masturbation.[2] The word masturbation is never specifically mentioned in the Bible or the Book of Mormon, nor are there any clear unchallenged references to masturbation.[3][4] Various passages have been held to implicitly condemn or approve of masturbation, but others disagree; there is not "a clear condemnation of masturbation".[5]

The biblical story of Onan (Genesis 38) is traditionally linked to referring to masturbation and condemnation thereof.[6] A number of scholars have pointed out that the sexual act described by this story is coitus interruptus, not masturbation.[7][8][9][10][11] Some go further and argue that Onan's death was solely due to his refusal to fulfill the obligation of levirate marriage, rather than any sexual sin.[12] Others argue that Onan's punishment was both for his refusal to fulfill his obligations and because of his perverse sexual act.[13] For example, James Nelson argues that Onan's act was condemned due to the firm "procreative" accent of the Hebrew interpretation regarding sexuality, where survival of the tribe depends on abundant procreation. The story was written by a "prescientific mind" that considered the child to be contained in the sperm the same way a plant is contained in its seed.[14][15] Onan's offense was therefore the deliberate destruction of human life.[14]

Leviticus 15:16-17 says that a man who has an emission of semen should wash and be ceremonially unclean until evening. Verse 18 goes on to say that if a man and woman have intercourse, the same cleanliness rules apply. Ilona N. Rashkow states that Leviticus 15:16 "refers to the emission rather than its circumstances."[16] According to James R. Johnson, by bringing up intercourse separately, the passage implies that the emission of semen in verses 16 and 17 occurred for the man individually. The passage may be referring to a nocturnal emission, or wet dream, rather than masturbation, but the passage is not specific.[17] In contrast, Deuteronomy 23:9-11 explicitly specifies nocturnal emission.[18] Johnson thus views this passage as suggesting that masturbation is a purely ceremonial cleanliness issue, and not as a matter of morality. Johnson also notes that the passage puts no more disapproval on the solitary experience than it does on intercourse.[17]

Matthew 5:29–30, Matt. 18:6–9, and Mark 9:42–48 state that, if they cause one to sin, one should tear out one's eye and cut off one's hand or foot. Will Deming states "The sinning by eye, hand, and foot may come from a tradition of formulaic warnings against lustful gazing (by the eye), masturbation (by hand), and adultery (by 'foot', the Hebrew euphemism for genitalia)," referencing the Niddah, specifically m. Nid. 2.1 and b. Nid. 13b.[19][20] In addition to the eye, Deming argues that "the hand plays a major role in lust as well through masturbation".[21] William Loader links this to the story of Origen, where perhaps Origen read "foot" and "hand" as euphemisms for penis and castrated himself. Loader views attaching special meanings to the body parts in these passages as over-interpretation, as these passages are mainly hyperbole.[22]

1 Thessalonians 4:3-4 reads: “What God wants is for you all to be holy. He wants you to keep away from fornication [porneia], and each of you to know how to use the body that belongs to him in a way that is holy and honorable, not giving way to selfish lust like the pagans who do not know God.”[18] The Greek word porneia (πορνεία) is used in other New Testament passages such as Galatians 5:19-23 and has a general meaning of sexual immorality or unchastity.[23][24] More generally, Paul refers to purity and contamination in 2 Corinthians 7:1.[25] Some commentators view the word porneia as including masturbation,[5] and see these passages as implicitly confirming the immorality of masturbation.[18] Others disagree,[5] holding that this passage simply condemns the pagans' then-common sexual licentiousness and promiscuity, and has no relevance to masturbation.[18]

Romans 1:24 and 1 Corinthians 6:10 are sometimes held to refer to masturbation, but Dedek argues that they refer to sodomy and pederasty respectively.[18]

1 Corinthians 7:3-5 has been held by some to allow masturbation in the context of marriage. Masturbation should not necessarily be a normal circumstance, but if for example sexual tension becomes unmanageable due to extended separation, Johnson states "masturbation would not counteract the divine purpose" with the consent of one's spouse.[26]

Christianity

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Main article: Christian views on masturbation

For example, Christian denominations have different views on masturbation. Today, Roman Catholic (including Eastern Catholic), Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and some Protestant Christians consider masturbation to be a sin. Many Protestant churches in Northern and Western Europe and some Protestant churches in Northern America and in Australia/New Zealand see masturbation as not a sin.

According to Björn Krondorfer, "Auto-erotic sex became conceivable as a distinct entity among sexual sins only when the autonomous self emerged."[27] He goes on to cite Laqueur, "Only after the Freudian revolution...did a cultural shift occur. Masturbation was now valued as an adult, non-pathological, pleasurable activity. 'Beginning in the 1950s, picking up energy with the feminism of the 1960s and early 1970s, with the subsequent sex wars, and with the worldwide gay movement of the last quarter of the century, it would become an arena of sexual politics and for art across a wide spectrum of society...Due to this cultural change across the spectrum, even theological reassessments of masturbation as a positive sexual practice were possible – though, admittedly, rare."[27]

Islam

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Main article: Islam and masturbation

In Islam, masturbation (Arabic: استمناء, romanized: istimnā’) is forbidden or makruh (discouraged) according to the majority of scholars' opinions. However, a minority viewpoint within some Islamic schools of thought permits masturbation as an alternative to zina (fornication), or if one is unable to marry.[28][29] Bathing (ghusl) is compulsory after any kind of seminal discharge whether through sexual intercourse, masturbation, or nocturnal emissions.[30]

Judaism

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Main article: Judaism and masturbation

Maimonides stated that the Tanakh does not explicitly prohibit masturbation.[31] On the matter of masturbation, the biblical story of Onan is traditionally interpreted by Jews to be about the emitting sperm outside of the vagina and condemnation thereof,[32] applying this story to masturbation,[32] although the Tanakh does not explicitly state that Onan was masturbating.[32] By virtue of Onan, traditional Judaism condemns [male] masturbation.[31]

Leviticus 15:16–18 states that any male who emits semen is considered ritually impure - whether the emission came through masturbation, nocturnal emission, or sex between married heterosexual partners.[17][33] The traditional rabbinical interpretation of Leviticus 15 was that it applies to all sperm flows, including sperm flows due to masturbation. Other than this ritual impurity, no consequences or punishments are specified.

Even among Jewish scholars and among rabbis, it is widely disputed whether the prohibition of masturbation is a biblical prohibition or a rabbinical prohibition, since it is never explicitly mentioned in the Torah.[34] Many Ultra-Orthodox rabbis are afraid to publicly discuss their disagreement with the traditional interpretation about it being prohibited by the Bible.[35]

Indian and Iranian religions

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Hinduism

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Seeking bodily pleasure is only considered condemned for those who dedicate themselves to chastity. There are no references in Hindu religious texts to suggest that masturbation itself desecrates sexual purity. For those who are dedicated to chastity, this sin is absolutely minor, and can be absolved either by taking a bath, or by worshipping the Sun, or by saying three prayers.[36][37][38]

Buddhism

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See also: Buddhist ethics, karma, Taṇhā, and Vinaya

The most used formulation of Buddhist ethics are the Five Precepts. These precepts take the form of voluntary personal undertakings, not divine mandate or instruction. The third precept is "to refrain from committing sexual misconduct".[39] However, different schools of Buddhism have differing interpretations of what constitutes sexual misconduct.

Buddhism was advanced by Gautama Buddha as a method by which human beings could end dukkha (suffering) and escape samsara (cyclic existence). Normally this entails practicing meditation and following the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path as a way to subdue the passions which, along with the skandhas, cause suffering and rebirth. Masturbation (Pali: sukkavissaṭṭhi) is accordingly seen as problematic for a person who wishes to attain liberation. According to a lecture by Lama Thubten Zopa Rinpoche, it is important to abstain from "sexual intercourse, including masturbation, any action that brings an orgasm and so forth, because this results in a rebirth."[40] He clarifies: "Generally, the action that is the opposite of the precept brings the opposite negative result, takes us further from enlightenment, and keeps us longer in samsara."[40]

Shravasti Dhammika, a Theravadin monk, cites the Vinaya Pitaka in his online "Guide to Buddhism A to Z", and states the following:

Masturbation (sukkavissaṭṭhi) is the act of stimulating one's own sexual organs (sambādha) to the stage of orgasm (adhikavega). In the Kāma Sūtra male masturbation is called "seizing the lion" (siṃhākāranta). Some people during the Buddha's time believed that masturbation could have a therapeutic effect on the mind and the body (Vin. III, 109), although the Buddha disagreed with this. According to the Vinaya, it is an offence of some seriousness for monks or nuns to masturbate (Vin. III, 111) although the Buddha gave no guidance on this matter to lay people. However, Buddhism could agree with contemporary medical opinion that masturbation is a normal expression of the sexual drive and is physically and psychologically harmless, as long as it does not become a preoccupation or a substitute for ordinary sexual relations. Guilt and self-disgust about masturbating is certainly more harmful than masturbation itself.[41]

His opinions regarding non-Buddhists notwithstanding, the Buddha did encourage his serious disciples to limit their sexual behaviour or to embrace celibacy.[42] Indeed, emphasis on chastity in Buddhism is strong for bhikkhus and bhikkhunis (renunciates), who vow to follow the rules of the Vinaya. Not only are monastics celibate, but they also take more and stricter vows in order to conquer their desires. In the Theravadin tradition, masturbation is also stressed as being harmful for upāsakas and upāsikās (lay devotees) who practice the Eight Precepts on Uposatha days, leading a more ascetic lifestyle that does not allow for masturbation. Indeed, masturbation is explicitly characterised as sexual misconduct in the mahāyāna Upāsakaśīla sūtra:[43]

"If one has sex with oneself or someone by the road, beside a pagoda or temple, or in an assembly, one is guilty of the sin of sexual misconduct."[44]

Nevertheless, some contemporary writers on Buddhism suggest that masturbation is essentially harmless for a layperson.[45][46]

However, many Buddhist practitioners disagree on whether masturbation constitutes sexual misconduct or not, where Gampopa (1079-1153) believed that anal or oral  sexes with any genders as improper sexual behavior, and Longchenpa (1308-1363) included masturbation along with it as sexual misconduct. Je Tsongkhapa (1357–1419) however, accepts masturbation. On the other hand, Dalai Lama Tenzin Gyatso reportedly believes that masturbation does constitute sexual misconduct.[47]

Zoroastrianism

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The act of masturbation is known as Shoeythra Gunaah, or Shoithra-gunah, which can also be used to refer to onanism.[48]

The Zoroastrian holy book Avesta, with its stress on physical cleanliness, lists voluntary masturbation among the unpardonable sins that one can commit. This view was supported by James R. Russell.[49] The Verses 26-28 of Fargard VIII, Section V of the Vendidad state

O Maker of the material world, thou Holy One! If a man involuntarily emits his seed, what is the penalty that he shall pay?

Ahura Mazda answered: 'Eight hundred stripes with the Aspahê-astra, eight hundred stripes with the Sraoshô-karana.'

O Maker of the material world, thou Holy One! If a man voluntarily emits his seed, what is the penalty for it? What is the atonement for it? What is the cleansing from it?

Ahura Mazda answered: 'For that deed there is nothing that can pay, nothing that can atone, nothing that can cleanse from it; it is a trespass for which there is no atonement, for ever and ever.'

When is it so?

'It is so, if the sinner be a professor of the law of Mazda, or one who has been taught in it. But if he be not a professor of the law of Mazda, nor one who has been taught in it, then this law of Mazda takes his sin from him, if he confesses it and resolves never to commit again such forbidden deeds.

The scholar Sorabji Edalji Dubash has also written:

If a man resorts to the evil practice of masturbation to overcome his passion, his tissues, both muscular and nervous, become relaxed in tone. By the waste of muscular tissue he is hardly able to undergo the exertion required for the discharge of his daily duties. But it is the nervous tissue that suffers most, inasmuch as his memory fails, his intellect becomes dull, he becomes morose and peevish, and shuns the agreeable society of his friends and relatives, and consequently he becomes subject to melancholia. His mind soon becomes exhausted after slight application and its power of retaining impressions is lost. If he becomes subject to melancholia, he sometimes attempts to commit suicide. When we consider these evil effects following masturbation, we do not wonder why it is considered an inexpiable crime.[50]

Masturbation is also considered a Drujih-i-Buji (evil associated with menstrual flow) which is caused by the menstrual discharge of a woman if proper precautions are not followed. Drujih (evil) is more smarter and stronger than human intelligence.[51] Thus also enumerated in the Expiatory prayer of Dasturan Dastur Adarbad Mahrespand fall under Drujih-i-Buji. A right knowledge of Drujih-i-Buji and of the ill-effects is said to save young boys of the age of puberty from the fangs of masturbation.[52]

In the story of Jamshid and Taxmoruw (Tahmuras) preserved in a Parsi rivayat, Ahriman is shown to be a masturbator.[53]

Zoroastrian hell is also said to have sinners forced to defecate and masturbate continually.[54]

East Asian religions

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Taoism

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Some teachers and practitioners of Traditional Chinese medicine, Taoist meditative and martial arts say that masturbation can cause a lowered energy level in men. They say that ejaculation in this way reduces "origin qi" from dantian, the energy center located in the lower abdomen. Some maintain that sex with a partner does not do this because the partners replenish each other's qi. Some practitioners therefore say that males should not practice martial arts for at least 48 hours after masturbation while others prescribe up to six months, because the loss of Origin Qi does not allow new qi to be created for this kind of time.[citation needed]

Some Taoists strongly discouraged female masturbation. Women were encouraged to practice massaging techniques upon themselves, but were also instructed to avoid thinking sexual thoughts if experiencing a feeling of pleasure. Otherwise, the woman's "labia will open wide and the sexual secretions will flow." If this happened, the woman would lose part of her life force, and this could bring illness and shortened life.[55]

Confucianism

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Since the Song dynasty, the framing of sexual asceticism as a moral imperative began to spread among intellectual elites due to the emergence of neo-Confucianism. The elite masculinity of junzi (the cultured man) emphasised intellectuals’ capability to assist the emperor to govern the country. Strict self-cultivation (xiushen) through obedience to the patriarchal family institution was then seen as a necessary means for budding intellectuals to transform themselves into eligible political elites. Excessive or deviant sexual desire, viewed as men’s overindulgence in private affairs and disobedience to their masculine family/public obligations, was thus disparaged by dynastic rulers. This norm was also imposed on the emperors themselves. Masturbation raises an ethical crisis because it means that men waste their bodily essence for pleasure, harm their spirit and productivity, and thus disobey their obligation to carry on the family lineage and fail to practice filial piety.[56]

Wicca

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Wicca, like other religions, has adherents with a spectrum of views ranging from conservative to liberal. Wicca is generally undogmatic, and nothing in Wiccan philosophy prohibits masturbation. On the contrary, Wiccan ethics, summed up in the Wiccan Rede "An it harm none, do as thou wilt", are interpreted by many as endorsing responsible sexual activity of all varieties. This is reinforced in the Charge of the Goddess, a key piece of Wiccan literature, in which the Goddess says, "all acts of love and pleasure are my rituals".[57]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Ley, David J. (8 June 2016). "Porn vs. Religion". Psychology Today. Archived from the original on 16 January 2022. Retrieved 30 April 2018.
  2. ^ For example:
  3. ^ Jech, Carl L. (2013). "CHAPTER 2. Beyond Heaven and Hell". Religion as Art Form: Reclaiming Spirituality Without Supernatural Beliefs. Eugene, OR: Resource Publications, Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 97. ISBN 9781621896708. OCLC 853272981. Archived from the original on 2021-08-15. Retrieved 2020-10-28. (Masturbation is never mentioned in the Bible.)
  4. ^ Malan, Mark Kim; Bullough, Vern (Fall 2005). "Historical development of new masturbation attitudes in Mormon culture: secular conformity, counterrevolution, and emerging reform" (PDF). Sexuality & Culture. 9 (4): 80–127. doi:10.1007/s12119-005-1003-z. ISSN 1095-5143. S2CID 145480822. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-08-12. Retrieved 2015-06-26. While nowhere in the Bible is there a clear unchallenged reference to masturbation, Jewish tradition was always seriously concerned about the loss of semen. The Book of Leviticus, for example states: [Bible quote Lev 14:16-18]...Although masturbation is not mentioned in the Bible or Book of Mormon, absence of scriptural authority on the matter, Kimball said, is irrelevant: "Let no one rationalize their sins on the excuse that a particular sin of his is not mentioned nor forbidden in scripture" (p.25).
  5. ^ a b c Wray, Tina J. (2011). "Chapter 7. Should We or Shouldn't We? A Brief Exploration of Sexuality and Gender". What the Bible Really Tells Us: The Essential Guide to Biblical Literacy. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 142–143. ISBN 9781442212930. OCLC 707329261. Returning to the Levitical list of sexual taboos, curiously missing from the list is any mention of masturbation. Many people assume that this, too, is forbidden, but the truth is, the word masturbation is never specifically mentioned in the Bible, though some argue that it is implied (and also condemned) in several places. The story cited most often is found in Genesis 38...For centuries this obscure passage has been used as an indictment against masturbation though it is not masturbation at all...But if Onan's story is not about masturbation, then where in the Bible is the practice forbidden? Some commentators conclude that the word porneia—a word already discussed in the first two assumptions—is a catchall term to include all forms of unchastity, including masturbation, but others vehemently disagree. In the book of Leviticus, there is explicit mention of purity regulations regarding semen that seem to emanate from either masturbation or possibly nocturnal emission: [Bible quote Lev 15:16-17] None of this, however, represent a clear condemnation of masturbation.
  6. ^ Vines, Matthew (2014). "4. The Real Sin of Sodom". God and the Gay Christian: The Biblical Case in Support of Same-Sex Relationships. New York, NY: Doubleday Religious Publishing Group. p. 72. ISBN 9781601425171. OCLC 869801284. Archived from the original on 2021-08-15. Retrieved 2020-10-28. Most Christians today understand that masturbation was not the sin of Onan. What's more, many also recognize that masturbation is not inherently sinful.
  7. ^ Coogan, Michael (October 2010). God and Sex. What the Bible Really Says (1st ed.). New York, Boston: Twelve. Hachette Book Group. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-446-54525-9. OCLC 505927356. Retrieved May 5, 2011. Although Onan gives his name to "onanism," usually a synonym for masturbation, Onan was not masturbating but practicing coitus interruptus.
  8. ^ "Birth Control | Catholic Answers". Archived from the original on 2016-11-29. Retrieved 2015-01-06. (official Catholic tract declared free from error by a book censor and approved by a bishop.) Quote: "The Bible mentions at least one form of contraception specifically and condemns it. Coitus interruptus, was used by Onan to avoid fulfilling his duty according to the ancient Jewish law of fathering children for one's dead brother."
  9. ^ Ellens, J. Harold (2006). "6. Making Babies: Purposes of Sex". Sex in the Bible: a new consideration. Westport, Conn.: Praeger Publishers. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-275-98767-1. OCLC 65429579. Archived from the original on 2021-08-15. Retrieved 2012-01-24. He practiced coitus interruptus whenever he made love to Tamar.
  10. ^ Confirmed by The Web Bible Encyclopedia at http://www.christiananswers.net/dictionary/onan.html Archived 2012-01-31 at the Wayback Machine quote: "Some have mistakenly assumed that Onan's sin was masturbation. However, it seems clear that this is not the case. Onan was prematurely withdrawing from sexual intercourse with his new wife, Tamar. This is a form of birth control still practiced today (coitus interruptus)."
  11. ^ Church Father Epiphanius of Salamis agrees, according to Riddle, John M. (1992). "1. Population and Sex". Contraception and abortion from the ancient world to the Renaissance. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-674-16875-6. OCLC 24428750. Archived from the original on 2021-08-15. Retrieved 2012-01-24. Epiphanius (fourth century) construed the sin of Onan as coitus interruptus.14
  12. ^ Coogan, Michael David; Brettler, Marc Zvi; Newsom, Carol A.; Perkins, Pheme, eds. (2018). The new Oxford annotated Bible : New Revised Standard version with the Apocrypha (Fully revised fifth ed.). New York, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-027609-6. OCLC 1006596851. Onan's death is attributed to his refusal to perform this duty of impregnating Er's widow, Tamar, probably by coitus interruptus (rather than "onanism," masturbation).
  13. ^ Lawler, Ronald David; Boyle, Joseph M.; May, William E. (1998). Catholic sexual ethics : a summary, explanation & defense. Huntington, Ind. : Our Sunday Visitor. ISBN 978-0-87973-952-2.
  14. ^ a b Nelson, James (2003). "Homosexuality and the Church". In Laderman, Gary; León, Luis D. (eds.). Religion and American Cultures: An Encyclopedia of Traditions, Diversity, and Popular Expressions. Vol. 1. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio. p. 884. ISBN 9781576072387. OCLC 773527161. Archived from the original on 2021-08-15. Retrieved 2020-10-28.
  15. ^ Gold 2001, p. 195.
  16. ^ Nemesnyik Rashkow, Ilona (2000). "Sin and Sex, Sex and Sin: The Hebrew Bible and Human Sexuality". Taboo Or Not Taboo: Sexuality and Family in the Hebrew Bible. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press. p. 16. ISBN 9781451409871. OCLC 42603147. Archived from the original on 2021-08-15. Retrieved 2020-10-28. Since it is questionable whether masturbation is considered a category of "negative" sexual activity in the Hebrew Bible, I shall not discuss masturbation. (The sin of Onan [Genesis 38] is not necessarily that of masturbation; otherwise, oblique references to seminal emission, such as "a man, when an emission of semen comes out of him" [Lev 15:16], refer to the emission rather than its circumstances. Female masturbation is never mentioned in the Hebrew Bible.)
  17. ^ a b c Jones, Stanton; Jones, Brenna (2014). "CHAPTER 13: Developing Moral Discernment About Masturbation and Petting". How and When to Tell Your Kids About Sex: A Lifelong Approach to Shaping Your Child's Sexual Character. Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, Tyndale House. p. 253. ISBN 9781612912301. OCLC 104623265. Archived from the original on 2021-08-15. Retrieved 2020-10-28. 1. We are aware of only one argument that attempts to draw directly from the Scripture to establish a basis for the acceptance of masturbation, found in J. Johnson, "Toward a Biblical Approach to Masturbation, Journal of Psychology and Theology 10 (1982): 137-146. Johnson suggest that Leviticus 15:16-18 should set the tone for our dealing with masturbation. Verses 16 and 17 say that a man who has an emission of semen should wash and be ceremonially unclean until evening. Verse 18 goes on to say that if a man and woman have intercourse, the same cleanliness rules apply. By bringing up intercourse separately, the passage surely does imply that the emission of semen in verses 16 and 17 occurred for the man individually. The passage may be referring to a nocturnal emission, or wet dream, rather than masturbation, but the passage is not specific. Johnson suggests that this Leviticus passage is significant for treating a solitary sexual experience, whether wet dream or masturbation, as a purely ceremonial cleanliness issue and not as a matter of morality. The passage also puts no more disapproval on the solitary experience than it does on intercourse. Since Christians today commonly view the Old Testament ceremonial law as no longer valid, this author suggests that masturbation is not in itself a moral concern from a biblical perspective and is no longer a ceremonial concern either.
  18. ^ a b c d e Dedek, John F. (1971). Contemporary sexual morality. New York, Sheed and Ward. pp. 49–51. ISBN 978-0-8362-1159-7.
  19. ^ Deming, Will (January 1990). "Mark 9. 42–10. 12, Matthew 5. 27–32, and B. Nid . 13b: A First Century Discussion of Male Sexuality". New Testament Studies. 36 (1): 130–141. doi:10.1017/S0028688500010900. S2CID 170786561.
  20. ^ Lin, Yii-Jan (2014). "New Testament". In O'Brien, Julia M. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Bible and Gender Studies. Oxford University Press. p. 465. ISBN 978-0199836994.
  21. ^ Osborne, Grant R. (2010). Arnold, Clinton E. (ed.). Matthew: Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament. Zondervan. p. 196. ISBN 978-0310323709.
  22. ^ Loader, William (2014). "Marriage and Sexual Relations in the New Testament World". In Thatcher, Adrian (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Theology, Sexuality, and Gender. OUP Oxford. pp. 189–205. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199664153.013.005. ISBN 978-0191641091.
  23. ^ "G4202 - porneia - Strong's Greek Lexicon (kjv)". Blue Letter Bible.
  24. ^ Harvey, John Francis (2007). Homosexuality & the Catholic Church : clear answers to difficult questions. West Chester, Penn. : Ascension Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-1-932927-62-7.
  25. ^ Harvey.
  26. ^ Johnson, James R. (June 1982). "Toward a Biblical Approach to Masturbation". Journal of Psychology and Theology. 10 (2): 137–146. doi:10.1177/009164718201000204.
  27. ^ a b Krondorfer, Björn (2009). Men and Masculinities in Christianity and Judaism: A Critical Reader. Hymns Ancient and Modern Ltd. ISBN 9780334041917. Archived from the original on 16 January 2022. Retrieved 29 April 2018.
  28. ^ The Lawful And The Prohibited In Islam, Yusuf Al-Qardawi - 1997
  29. ^ The New Arab Man: Emergent Masculinities, Technologies, and Islam in the Middle East, p 168, Marcia C. Inhorn - 2012
  30. ^ "Janabah - Oxford Islamic Studies Online". oxfordislamicstudies.com. Archived from the original on 2018-07-24. Retrieved 2018-07-24.
  31. ^ a b Maimonides, Commentary to the Mishnah, Sanhedrin 7:4, apud Dorff, Elliot N. (2003) [1998]. "Chapter Five. Preventing Pregnancy". Matters of life and death : a Jewish approach to modern medical ethics (First paperback ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Jewish Publication Society. p. 117. ISBN 978-0827607682. OCLC 80557192. Jews historically shared the abhorrence of male masturbation that characterized other societies.2 Interestingly, although the prohibition was not debated, legal writers had difficulty locating a biblical based for it, and no less an authority than Maimonides claimed that it could not be punishable by the court because there was not an explicit negative commandment forbidding it.3
  32. ^ a b c Judaism 101: Kosher Sex Archived 2019-11-20 at the Wayback Machine Jewish law clearly prohibits male masturbation. This law is derived from the story of Onan (Gen. 38:8-10), who practiced coitus interruptus as a means of birth control to avoid fathering a child for his deceased brother. God killed Onan for this sin. Although Onan's act was not truly masturbation, Jewish law takes a very broad view of the acts prohibited by this passage, and forbids any act of ha-sh'cha'tat zerah (destruction of the seed), that is, ejaculation outside of the vagina. In fact, the prohibition is so strict that one passage in the Talmud states, "in the case of a man, the hand that reaches below the navel should be chopped off." (Niddah 13a). The issue is somewhat less clear for women. Obviously, spilling the seed is not going to happen in female masturbation, and there is no explicit Torah prohibition against female masturbation. Nevertheless, Judaism generally frowns upon female masturbation as "impure thoughts."
  33. ^ Milgrom, Jacob (2000) [1991]. Leviticus 17-22. New Haven London: Yale University Press. pp. 1567–1568. ISBN 978-0300140569. apud Gagnon, Robert A.J. (2005-02-07). "A critique of Jacob Milgrom's views on Leviticus 18:22 and 20:13" (PDF). www.robgagnon.net. Pittsburgh. p. 6. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2015-06-25. the ejaculation of semen results in only a one-day impurity that requires laundering and ablutions (15:16-18), regardless of whether the act takes place during (legitimate) intercourse or by the self, deliberately (masturbation) or accidentally (nocturnal emission).
  34. ^
    • Steinberg, Avraham; Rosner, Fred (2003). "Semen". Encyclopedia of Jewish Medical Ethics: A Compilation of Jewish Medical Law on All Topics of Medical Interest ... Feldheim Publishers. p. 912. ISBN 978-1-58330-592-8. Retrieved 2024-07-26. Some Rabbis write that the improper emission of semen (hashchatat zera) (literally: destruction of seed) is a Biblical offense. Other Rabbis write that the prohibition is part of the tradition given to Moses at Sinai. Yet other Rabbis consider it to be a rabbinic prohibition. Some Rabbis write that the question as to whether the prohibition is Biblical or rabbinic is disputed already among the early rabbinic decisors. Since the prohibition of destroying semen is not explicitly stated in the Torah, there is disagreement among the rabbinic decisors as to the Biblical source for this prohibition:
    • Gold, Michael (2001). "Raising sexually responsible children". Does God Belong in the Bedroom?. Varda Books. p. 195. ISBN 978-1-59045-127-4. Retrieved 2024-07-26. Despite the many rabbinic passages about the evil of spilling seed in vain, it is difficult to find a single source for the prohibition in the Torah. The story of Onan (Gen. 38), often cited as the source, involves the more serious biblical sin of evading levirate marriage obligations. Rabbi David Feldman brings a number of possible sources for the law.17 The difficulty of pinpointing a biblical source seems to indicate that this is a rabbinic prohibition based on the rabbis' own sense of propriety.
    • Englander, Yakir (2021). "The Other Voice. The Body and Sexuality According to the "Nir'eh Likh'orah"". The Male Body in Ultra-Orthodox Jewish Theology. Pickwick Publications. p. 163. ISBN 978-1-7252-8729-7. Retrieved 2024-07-26. The NL himself thinks about this question and even poses it in his blog. His answer is that his position is not, in fact, an innovation. Many other Musar rabbis read the classical Jewish texts in the same way, and have felt that the traditional reading on the subject of male masturbation was wrong, but did not share these thoughts in public, afraid of the effect this would have on the traditional Ultra-Orthodox way of life.
    • Zalcberg, Sara; Zalcberg, Sima (2016). "Chapter 8. Body and Sexuality Constructs among Youth of the Ultra-Orthodox Jewish Community". In Nynäs, Peter; Yip, Andrew Kam-Tuck (eds.). Religion, Gender and Sexuality in Everyday Life. Taylor & Francis. p. unpaginated. ISBN 978-1-317-06726-9. Retrieved 2024-07-26. But while the halakha permits sexual activity, it also includes many prohibitions of particular types of such activity, particularly sexual intercourse when the woman is menstruating, homosexual activity, and male masturbation.2 The first two prohibitions are directly stated in the Pentateuch (Leviticus 18:22; 20:3), while the third is considered by halakhic authorities to be based on a biblical verse (Deuteronomy 23:10), as discussed in the Talmud (Ketubot 46a, Avoda Zara 20b), and is considered very serious.
  35. ^ Englander 2021, p. 163.
  36. ^ Ramanathan, Vijayasarathi; Weerakoon, Patricia (2012). "Sexuality in India: Ancient Beliefs, Present Day Problems, and Future Approaches to Management". In Graham, Cynthia A.; Hall, Kathryn (eds.). The Cultural Context of Sexual Pleasure and Problems: Psychotherapy with Diverse Clients. Online access with subscription: Proquest Ebook Central. Routledge. p. 177. ISBN 978-0-415-99845-1. Retrieved 21 January 2022.
  37. ^ Bullough, Vern L. (23 January 2003). "Masturbation". Journal of Psychology & Human Sexuality. 14 (2–3). Informa UK Limited: 17–33. doi:10.1300/j056v14n02_03. ISSN 0890-7064. S2CID 216147700. (subscription required)
  38. ^ Cornog, Martha (2003). The Big Book of Masturbation: From Angst to Zeal. Down There Press. pp. 167, 181–183. ISBN 978-0-940208-29-2. Retrieved 21 January 2022. I could not locate any Vedic texts or commentary referring to masturbation
  39. ^ Higgins, Winton. "Buddhist Sexual Ethics". BuddhaNet Magazine. Archived from the original on 2007-01-21. Retrieved 2007-01-15.
  40. ^ a b Lama Thubten Zopa Rinpoche (3 May 2015). "Kopan Course No. 03 & No. 04 (1972-73): Appendix One: The Eight Mahayana Precepts". Archived from the original on June 1, 2015. Retrieved January 9, 2017.
  41. ^ Shravasti Dhammika. "Masturbation". Guide to Buddhism A-Z. Bhante Dhammika. Archived from the original on 26 June 2015. Retrieved 25 June 2015.
  42. ^ M. O' C Walsh (1986). "Buddhism and Sex". Guide to Buddhism A-Z. Bhante Dhammika. Archived from the original on 28 December 2016. Retrieved 9 January 2017.
  43. ^ "Sutra of the Upasaka Precepts, fascicle 6, 優婆塞戒經". www.sutrasmantras.info. Retrieved 2024-10-11.
  44. ^ Sūtra of the Upāsaka Precepts, fascicle 6, Chapter 24a
  45. ^ Brian Schell (January 8, 2009). "A Sensitive Topic". Daily Buddhism. Archived from the original on January 12, 2017. Retrieved January 9, 2017.
  46. ^ "Masturbation: Does Your Religion Give It a Thumbs Up or Thumbs Down?". Beliefnet.com. Archived from the original on December 9, 2016. Retrieved January 9, 2017.
  47. ^ Chaibuntan, Prakob. "Sexual Misconduct: The Poisonous Social". Global Interactive Journal of World Religions and Cultures. 2: 40–53.
  48. ^ Hutokhsh (2009-12-01) [2008-02-17]. "The Rationale of PATET" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-12-18. Retrieved 2019-12-18.
  49. ^ James R. Russell (1987). Zoroastrianism in Armenia. Harvard University, Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations. ISBN 978-0-674-96850-9. Archived from the original on 2021-04-16. Retrieved 2019-12-18.
  50. ^ Dubash, Sorabji Edalji (1906). The Zoroastrian Sanitary Code, with Critical and Explanatory Notes. K.R. Cama's prize essay. Sanj Vartaman Printing Press. ISBN 978-1-371-07827-0. Archived from the original on 2022-01-16. Retrieved 2019-12-18.
  51. ^ "A Zarathustri Soul & His Divine Plan". Retrieved 12 October 2024.
  52. ^ Masani, Phiroze Shapurji (1917). Zoroastrianism Ancient and Modern: Comprising a Review of Dr. Dhalla's Book of Zoroastrian Theology. Masani.
  53. ^ Les types du premier homme et du premier roi dans l'histoire légendaire des Iraniens Part I (1917) by Christensen, Arthur pps. 184-189.
  54. ^ Rosemary Guiley (2009). The Encyclopedia of Demons and Demonology. Infobase Publishing. pp. 112–. ISBN 978-1-4381-3191-7. Archived from the original on 2022-01-16. Retrieved 2019-12-18.
  55. ^ Wile 1992, p. 59.
  56. ^ Liang, Chenglin (2024-05-03). "Abstinence for the sake of modest success: a Chinese anti-masturbation group's path to individualisation". Inter-Asia Cultural Studies. 25 (3): 369–370. doi:10.1080/14649373.2024.2336727.
  57. ^ "Alternative Sexuality". Tangled Moon Coven. 2006-08-08. Archived from the original on 2007-03-22. Retrieved 2006-12-30.

Bibliography

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