Sannyasa Upanishads are a group of minor Upanishads of Hinduism related to the renunciation, monastic practice and asceticism.[1] There are 19 Sannyasa Upanishads in the Muktika anthology of 108 Upanishads.[2] They, along with other minor Upanishads, are generally classified separately from the thirteen major Principal Upanishads considered to be from the ancient Vedic tradition.[3]
The Sannyasa group of minor Upanishads differ from other groupings, broadly based on their overall focus, even though there are overlaps. They contrast with the Samanya Upanishads which are of a generic nature, the Yoga Upanishads related to Yoga, the Shaiva Upanishads which highlight aspects of Shaivism, the Shakta Upanishads which focus on Shaktism, and the Vaishnava Upanishads which highlight Vaishnavism.[3][4]
Six of the nineteen Sannyasa Upanishads were composed in ancient India, in the first centuries CE.[5] Others are dated to be from the medieval era.[6] All except one has a strong Advaita Vedanta focus, which according to Patrick Olivelle may be explained by the fact that the major monasteries of the early medieval period belonged to the Advaita Vedanta, which selected or recast those texts which fitted into their teachings.[7][8][9]
The Sannyasa Upanishads are notable for their descriptions of the Hindu sannyasi (renouncer), his character and his state of existence as he leads the monastic life in the Ashrama tradition.[10] They generally assert that the life of the sannyasi is one of carefree simplicity of compassion for all living beings,[11][12] of reflection, not rituals,[13] dedicated to Jnana-kanda (knowledge section of the Vedas),[14][15] finding home when he is in union with truth and perfection.[15][16] Self-knowledge is his journey and destination,[15][17] a solitary place his monastery of bliss.[18] They also offer contrasting views on who, how and at what age one may renounce the world for spiritual pursuits.[19]
Date
editAccording to Sprockhoff, six of the Sannyasa Upanishads – Aruni, Kundika, Kathashruti, Paramahamsa, Jabala and Brahma – were composed before the 3rd-century CE, likely in the centuries before or after the start of the common era, states Sprockhoff.[20] According to Olivelle, they must be younger, dating them to the first centuries CE.[5]
The Asrama Upanishad is dated to the 3rd century CE, the Naradaparivrajaka and Satyayaniya Upanishads to around the 12th century, and about ten of the remaining Sannyasa Upanishads are dated to have been composed in the 14th to 15th century CE, well after the start of Islamic Sultanates period of South Asia in the late 12th century.[21]
Significance
edit
Some of the oldest Sannyasa Upanishads have a strong Advaita Vedanta outlook, and these pre-date Adi Shankara.[8] Most of the Sannyasa Upanishads present a Yoga and nondualism (Advaita) Vedanta philosophy.[9] This may be, states Patrick Olivelle, because major Hindu monasteries of early medieval period (1st millennium CE) belonged to the Advaita Vedanta tradition.[7]
The 12th-century Shatyayaniya Upanishad is a significant exception, which presents qualified dualistic and Vaishnavism (Vishishtadvaita Vedanta) philosophy.[7][22] These texts were influential and often discussed by medieval era Indian scholars. For example, states Olivelle, the Jabala Upanishad was mentioned by Adi Shankara in his bhasya on Brahma Sutras, and he did so several times, at 1.2.32, 2.1.3, 3.3.37–41, 3.4.17–18 and others.[23]
List of 19 Sannyasa Upanishads
edit| Title | Muktika serial # | Attached Veda | Period of creation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nirvana Upanishad | 47 | Rig Veda | ~14th–15th century CE |
| Aruneya Upanishad | 16 | Sama Veda | ~1st-3rd century CE,[5] (may be oldest) |
| Maitreya Upanishad | 29 | Sama Veda | ~14th–15th century CE |
| Brihat-Sannyasa Upanishad | 65 | Sama Veda | ~14th–15th century CE |
| Kundika Upanishad | 75 | Sama Veda | ~1st-3rd century CE,[5] |
| Brahma Upanishad | 11 | Black Yajurveda | ~1st-3rd century CE,[5] |
| Avadhutaka Upanishad | 79 | Black Yajurveda | ~14th–15th century CE |
| Kathashruti Upanishad | 83 | Black Yajurveda | ~1st-3rd century CE,[5] |
| Jabala Upanishad | 13 | White Yajurveda | ~1st-3rd century CE,[5] |
| Paramahamsa Upanishad | 19 | White Yajurveda | ~1st-3rd century CE,[5] |
| Advayataraka Upanishad | 53 | White Yajurveda | ~14th–15th century CE |
| Bhikshuka Upanishad | 60 | White Yajurveda | ~14th–15th century CE |
| Turiyatitavadhuta Upanishad | 64 | White Yajurveda | ~14th–15th century CE |
| Yajnavalkya Upanishad | 97 | White Yajurveda | ~14th–15th century CE |
| Shatyayaniya Upanishad | 99 | White Yajurveda | ~12th century CE[24] |
| Ashrama Upanishad | Atharva Veda | 3rd century CE | |
| Naradaparivrajaka Upanishad | 43 | Atharva Veda | ~12th century CE |
| Paramahamsa Parivrajaka Upanishad | 66 | Atharva Veda | ~14th–15th century CE |
| Parabrahma Upanishad | 78 | Atharva Veda | ~14th–15th century CE |
Sannyasa in other Upanishads
editAmong the thirteen major or Principal Upanishads, all from the ancient era, many include sections related to Sannyasa.[25] For example, the motivations and state of a Sannyasi are mentioned in Maitrāyaṇi Upanishad, a classical major Upanishad.[26] Maitrāyaṇi starts with the question, "given the nature of life, how is joy possible?" and "how can one achieve moksha (liberation)?"; in later sections it offers a debate on possible answers and its views on Sannyasa.[27]
See also
editReferences
edit- ^ Patrick Olivelle (1998), Upaniṣhads. Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199540259
- ^ Deussen 1997, p. 556; Olivelle 1992, pp. x–xi, 5.
- ^ a b Mahony 1998, p. 271.
- ^ Winternitz & Sarma 1996, p. 217–224 with footnotes.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Olivelle 1992, p. 10.
- ^ Olivelle 1992, pp. x–xi, 8–18.
- ^ a b c Olivelle 1992, pp. 17–18.
- ^ a b Stephen H Phillips (1995), Classical Indian Metaphysics, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0812692983, page 332 with note 68
- ^ a b Antonio Rigopoulos (1998), Dattatreya: The Immortal Guru, Yogin, and Avatara, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791436967, pages 62-63
- ^ Olivelle 1992, pp. 5, 227–235.
- ^ Deussen 1997, pp. 761, 763, 766.
- ^ Olivelle 1992, pp. 127–128, 236–237.
- ^ Olivelle 1992, p. 228 with footnote 8.
- ^ Olivelle 1992, p. 228 with footnote 10.
- ^ a b c Sprockhoff 1976, pp. 187–197.
- ^ Gananath Obeyesekere (2005), Karma and Rebirth: A Cross Cultural Study, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-2609-0, pp. 99–102
- ^ Olivelle 1992, pp. 269–271, 278–280.
- ^ Olivelle 1992, p. 232, sutra 47.
- ^ Olivelle 1993, pp. 118–119, 178–179 with footnotes, 220–221 with footnote 38.
- ^ Sprockhoff 1976, pp. 277–294, 319–377.
- ^ Olivelle 1992, pp. x–xi, 8–18; Sprockhoff 1976, pp. 277–294, 319–377.
- ^ Antonio Rigopoulos (1998), Dattatreya: The Immortal Guru, Yogin, and Avatara, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791436967, page 81 note 27
- ^ Olivelle 2011, pp. 220–221 with footnote 38.
- ^ Olivelle 1992, p. 11.
- ^ Olivelle 1992, pp. x–xi, 4–9.
- ^ Hume, Robert Ernest (1921), The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press
- ^ Paul Deussen (Translator), Sixty Upanisads of the Veda, Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 367, 373
Bibliography
edit- Deussen, Paul (1997). Sixty Upanishads of the Veda. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1467-7.
- Mahony, William K. (1998). The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-3579-3.
- Müller, Max (1962). The Upanishads. Courier Corporation. ISBN 978-0-486-20993-7.
- Olivelle, Patrick (1992). The Samnyasa Upanisads. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507045-3.
- Olivelle, Patrick (1993). The Asrama System. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-508327-9.
- Olivelle, Patrick (2011). Ascetics and Brahmins studies in ideologies and institutions. London New York: Anthem Press. ISBN 978-0-85728-432-7.
- Olivelle, Patrick (2008). Upanisads. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-954025-9.
- Sprockhoff, Joachim F (1976). Samnyasa: Quellenstudien zur Askese im Hinduismus (in German). Wiesbaden: Kommissionsverlag Franz Steiner. ISBN 978-3515019057.
- Winternitz, Moriz; Sarma, V. Srinivasa (1996). A History of Indian Literature. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0264-3.