Wikipedia

Short linear motif

In molecular biology short linear motifs (SLiMs), linear motifs or minimotifs are short stretches of protein sequence that mediate protein–protein interaction.[1][2]

The human papilloma virus E7 oncoprotein mimic of the LxCxE motif (red) bound to the host retinoblastoma protein (dark grey) (PDB: 1gux​)

The first definition was given by Tim Hunt:[3]

"The sequences of many proteins contain short, conserved motifs that are involved in recognition and _targeting activities, often separate from other functional properties of the molecule in which they occur. These motifs are linear, in the sense that three-dimensional organization is not required to bring distant segments of the molecule together to make the recognizable unit. The conservation of these motifs varies: some are highly conserved while others, for example, allow substitutions that retain only a certain pattern of charge across the motif."

Attributes

edit

SLiMs are generally situated in intrinsically disordered regions [4] (over 80% of known SLiMs), however, upon interaction with a structured partner secondary structure is often induced. The majority of annotated SLiMs consist of 3 to 11 contiguous amino acids, with an average of just over 6 residues. However, only few hotspot residues (on average 1 hotspot for each 3 residues in the motif) contribute the majority of the free energy of binding and determine most of the affinity and specificity of the interaction. Although most motifs have no positional preference, several of them are required to be localized at the protein termini in order to be functional.[5][6] The key defining attribute of SLiMs, having a limited number of residues that directly contact the binding partner, has two major consequences. First, only few or even a single mutation can result in the generation of a functional motif, with further mutations of flanking residues allowing tuning affinity and specificity.[7] This results in SLiMs having an increased propensity to evolve convergently, which facilitates their proliferation, as is evidenced by their conservation and increased incidence in higher Eukaryotes.[8] It has been hypothesized that this might increase and restructure the connectivity of the interactome. Second, SLiMs have relatively low affinity for their interaction partners (generally between 1 and 150 μM), which makes these interactions transient and reversible, and thus ideal to mediate dynamic processes such as cell signaling. In addition, this means that these interactions can be easily modulated by post-translational modifications that change the structural and physicochemical properties of the motif. Also, regions of high functional density can mediate molecular switching by means of overlapping motifs (e.g. the C-terminal tails of integrin beta subunits), or they can allow high avidity interactions by multiple low affinity motifs (e.g. multiple AP2-binding motifs in Eps15).[6][9][10]

Function

edit

SLiM functions in almost every pathway due to their critical role in regulatory function, protein-protein interaction and signal transduction. SLiM act as interaction modules that are recognised by additional biomolecules. The majority of known interaction partners of SLiMs are globular protein domains, though, SLiMs that recognise other intrinsically disordered regions, RNA and lipids have also been characterised. SLiMs can be broadly split into two high level classes, modification sites and ligand binding sites.

Modification sites
Modification sites SLiMs encompass sites with intrinsic specificity determinant that are recognised and modified by the active site of a catalytic domain of an enzyme. These SLiMs include many classical post translational modification sites (PTMs), proteolytic cleavage sites recognised by proteases and bonds recognised by isomerases.

  • Moiety addition – SLiMs are often _targeted for the addition of a small chemical groups (e.g. Phosphorylation), proteins (e.g. SUMOylation) or other moieties (e.g. post translational moiety addition).
  • Proteolytic cleavage -SLiMs can act as recognition sites of endo-peptidases resulting in the irreversible cleavage of the peptide at the SLiM.
  • Structural modifications – SLiMs can be recognised by isomerases resulting in the cis-trans isomerisation of the peptide backbone.

Ligand binding sites
Ligand binding site SLiMs recruit binding partners to the SLiM containing proteins, often mediating transient interactions, or acting co-operatively to produce more stable complexes. Ligand SLiMs are often central to the formation of dynamic multi-protein complexes, however, they more commonly mediate regulatory interactions that control the stability, localisation or modification state of a protein.[11]

  • Complex formation – Ligand SLiMs often function as simple interfaces that recruit proteins to multi-protein complexes (e.g. the Retinoblastoma-binding LxCxE motif) or act as aggregators in scaffold proteins (e.g. SH3 domain-binding proline-rich sequences).
  • Localisation – A large number of SLiMs act as zipcodes that are recognized by the cellular transport machinery mediating the relocalisation of the containing protein to the correct sub-cellular compartment (e.g. Nuclear localisation signals (NLSs) and Nuclear export signals (NESs))
  • Modification state – Many classes of ligand SLiMs recruit enzymes to their substrate by binding to sites that are distinct from the enzyme's active site. These site, known as docking motifs, act as additional specificity determinants for these enzymes and decrease the likelihood of off-_target modification events.
  • Stability – A subset of docking motifs recruit E3 ubiquitin ligase to their substrates. The resulting polyubiquitination _targets the substrate for proteosomal destruction.

Role in disease

edit

Disordered protein elements like SLiMs are frequently found in factors that regulate gene expression.[11] As a result, several diseases have been linked to mutations that alter key SLiM-mediated functions. For instance, one cause of Noonan Syndrome is a mutation in the protein Raf-1 which abrogates the interaction with 14-3-3 proteins mediated by corresponding short linear motifs and thereby deregulate the Raf-1 kinase activity.[12] Usher's Syndrome is the most frequent cause of hereditary deaf-blindness in humans[13] and can be caused by mutations in either PDZ domains in Harmonin or the corresponding PDZ interaction motifs in the SANS protein.[14] Finally, Liddle's Syndrome has been implicated with autosomal dominant activating mutations in the WW interaction motif in the β-(SCNNB_HUMA) and γ-(SCNNG_HUMA) subunits of the Epithelial sodium channel ENaC.[15] These mutations abrogate the binding to the ubiquitin ligase NEDD4, thereby inhibiting channel degradation and prolonging the half-life of ENaC, ultimately resulting in increased Na+ reabsorption, plasma volume extension and hypertension.[16]

Viruses often mimic human SLiMs to hijack and disrupt a host's cellular machinery,[17][18][11] thereby adding functionality to their compact genomes without necessitating new virally encoded proteins. In fact, many motifs were originally discovered in viruses, such as the Retinoblastoma binding LxCxE motif and the UEV domain binding PTAP late domain. The short generation times and high mutation rates of viruses, in association with natural selection, has led to multiple examples of mimicry of host SLiMs in every step of the viral life cycle (Src binding motif PxxP in Nef modulates replication, WW domain binding PPxY mediates budding in Ebola virus, A Dynein Light Chain binding motif in Rabies virus is vital for host infection). The extent of human SLiM mimicry is surprising with many viral proteins containing several functional SLiMs, for example, the Adenovirus protein E1A.

Pathogenic bacteria also mimic host motifs (as well as having their own motifs), however, not to the same extent as the obligate parasite viruses. E. Coli injects a protein, EspF(U), that mimics an autoinhibitory element of N-WASP into the host cell to activate actin-nucleating factors WASP.[19] The KDEL motif of the bacteria encoded cholera toxin mediates cell entry of the cholera toxin.[20]

 
MDM2 SWIB domain-binding motif mimic drug Nutlin bound to MDM2(PDB: 3lbk​)

Potential as leads for drug design

edit

Linear motif mediated protein-protein interactions have shown promise in recent years as novel drug _targets.[21] Success stories include the MDM2 motif analog Nutlin-3 and integrin _targeting RGD-mimetic Cilengitide: Nutlin-3 antagonises the interaction of MDM2's SWIB domain with p53 thus stabilising p53 and inducing senescence in cancer cells.[22] Cilengitide inhibits integrin-dependent signaling, causing the disassembly of cytoskeleton, cellular detachment and the induction of apoptosis in endothelial and glioma cells.[23][24] In addition, peptides _targeting the Grb2 and Crk SH2/ SH3 adaptor domains are also under investigation.[25][26]

There are at present no drugs on the market specially _targeting phosphorylation sites, however, a number of drugs _target the kinase domain. This tactic has shown promise in the treatments of various forms of cancer.[18] For example, Stutnet® is a receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) inhibitor for treating gastrointestinal cancer, Gleevec® specially _targets bcr-abl and Sprycel® is a broad-based tyrosine kinase inhibitor whose _targets include Bcr-Abl and Src. Cleavage is another process directed by motif recognition with the proteases responsible for cleavage a good drug _target. For example, Tritace®, Vasotec®, Accupril®, and Lotensin® are substrate mimetic Angiotensin converting enzymes inhibitors. Other drugs that _target post-translational modifications include Zovirax®, an antiviral myristoylation inhibitor and Farnysyl Transferase inhibitors that block the lipidation modification to a CAAX-box motif.

Recommended further reading:[18][27]

Computational motif resources

edit

Databases

edit

SLiMs are usually described by regular expressions in the motif literature with the important residues defined based on a combination of experimental, structural and evolutionary evidence. However, high throughput screening such as phage display has seen a large increase in the available information for many motifs classes allowing them to be described with sequence logos.[28] Several diverse repositories currently curate the available motif data. In terms of scope, the Eukaryotic Linear Motif resource (ELM)[29] and MiniMotif Miner (MnM)[30] represent the two largest motif databases as they attempt to capture all motifs from the available literature. Several more specific and specialised databases also exist, PepCyber[31] and ScanSite[32] focus on smaller subsets of motifs, phosphopeptide binding and important signaling domains respectively. PDZBase[33] focuses solely on PDZ domain ligands. MEROPS[34] and CutDB[35] curate available proteolytic event data including protease specificity and cleavage sites. There has been a large increase in the number of publications describing motif mediated interactions over past decade and as a result a large amount of the available literature remains to be curated. Recent work has created the tool MiMosa[36] to expedite the annotation process and encourage semantically robust motif descriptions.[37]

Discovery tools

edit

SLiMs are short and degenerate and as a result the proteome is littered with stochastically occurring peptides that resemble functional motifs. The biologically relevant cellular partners can easily distinguish functional motifs, however computational tools have yet to reach a level of sophistication where motif discovery can be accomplished with high success rates.

Motif discovery tools can be split into two major categories, discovery of novel instance of known functional motifs class and discovery of functional motifs class, however, they all use a limited and overlapping set of attributes to discriminate true and false positives. The main discrimatory attributes used in motif discovery are:

  • Accessibility – the motif must be accessible for the binding partner. Intrinsic disorder prediction tools (such as IUPred or GlobPlot), domain databases (such as Pfam and SMART) and experimentally derived structural data (from sources such as PDB) can be used to check the accessibility of predicted motif instances.
  • Conservation – the conservation of a motif correlates strongly with functionality and many experimental motifs are seen as islands of strong constraint in regions of weak conservation. Alignment of homologous proteins can be used to calculate conservation metric for a motif.
  • Physicochemical properties – Certain intrinsic properties of residues or stretches of amino acids are strong discriminators of functionality, for example, the propensity of a region of disorder to undergo a disorder to order transition.
  • Enrichment in groupings of similar proteins – Motif often evolve convergently to carry out similar tasks in different proteins such as mediating binding to a specific partner or _targeting proteins to a particular subcellular localisation. Often in such cases these grouping the motif occurs more often than is expected by chance and can be detected by searching for enriched motifs.

Novel functional motifs instances

edit

The Eukaryotic Linear Motif resource (ELM)[29] and MiniMotif Miner (MnM)[30] both provide servers to search for novel instance of known functional motifs in protein sequences. SLiMSearch allows similar searches on a proteome-wide scale.[38]

Novel functional motifs class

edit

More recently computational methods have been developed that can identify new Short Linear Motifs de novo.[39] Interactome-based tools rely on identifying a set of proteins that are likely to share a common function, such as binding the same protein or being cleaved by the same peptidase. Two examples of such software are DILIMOT and SLiMFinder.[40][41] Anchor and α-MoRF-Pred use physicochemical properties to search for motif-like peptides in disordered regions (termed MoRFs, among others). ANCHOR[42] identifies stretches of intrinsically disordered regions that cannot form favorable intrachain interactions to fold without additional stabilising energy contributed by a globular interaction partner. α-MoRF-Pred[43] uses the inherent propensity of many SLiM to undergo a disorder to order transition upon binding to discover α-helical forming stretches within disordered regions. MoRFPred[44] and MoRFchibi SYSTEM[45][46][47] are SVM based predictors which utilize multiple features including local sequence physicochemical properties, long stretches of disordered regions and conservation in their predictions. SLiMPred[48] is neural network–based method for the de novo discovery of SLiMs from the protein sequence. Information about the structural context of the motif (predicted secondary structure, structural motifs, solvent accessibility, and disorder) are used during the predictive process. Importantly, no previous knowledge about the protein (i.e., no evolutionary or experimental information) is required.

References

edit
  1. ^ Diella F, Haslam N, Chica C, Budd A, Michael S, Brown NP, et al. (May 2008). "Understanding eukaryotic linear motifs and their role in cell signaling and regulation". Frontiers in Bioscience. 13 (13): 6580–603. doi:10.2741/3175. PMID 18508681.
  2. ^ Neduva V, Russell RB (October 2006). "Peptides mediating interaction networks: new leads at last". Current Opinion in Biotechnology. 17 (5): 465–71. doi:10.1016/j.copbio.2006.08.002. PMID 16962311.
  3. ^ Dice JF (August 1990). "Peptide sequences that _target cytosolic proteins for lysosomal proteolysis". Trends in Biochemical Sciences. 15 (8): 305–9. doi:10.1016/0968-0004(90)90019-8. PMID 2204156.
  4. ^ Ren S, Uversky VN, Chen Z, Dunker AK, Obradovic Z (September 2008). "Short Linear Motifs recognized by SH2, SH3 and Ser/Thr Kinase domains are conserved in disordered protein regions". BMC Genomics. 9 (Suppl 2): S26. doi:10.1186/1471-2164-9-S2-S26. PMC 2559891. PMID 18831792.
  5. ^ London N, Movshovitz-Attias D, Schueler-Furman O (February 2010). "The structural basis of peptide-protein binding strategies". Structure. 18 (2): 188–99. doi:10.1016/j.str.2009.11.012. PMID 20159464.
  6. ^ a b Davey NE, Van Roey K, Weatheritt RJ, Toedt G, Uyar B, Altenberg B, et al. (January 2012). "Attributes of short linear motifs". Molecular BioSystems. 8 (1): 268–81. doi:10.1039/c1mb05231d. PMID 21909575.
  7. ^ Davey NE, Cyert MS, Moses AM (November 2015). "Short linear motifs - ex nihilo evolution of protein regulation". Cell Communication and Signaling. 13 (1): 43. doi:10.1186/s12964-015-0120-z. PMC 4654906. PMID 26589632.
  8. ^ Ren S, Yang G, He Y, Wang Y, Li Y, Chen Z (October 2008). "The conservation pattern of short linear motifs is highly correlated with the function of interacting protein domains". BMC Genomics. 9: 452. doi:10.1186/1471-2164-9-452. PMC 2576256. PMID 18828911.
  9. ^ Neduva V, Russell RB (June 2005). "Linear motifs: evolutionary interaction switches". FEBS Letters. 579 (15): 3342–5. Bibcode:2005FEBSL.579.3342N. doi:10.1016/j.febslet.2005.04.005. PMID 15943979. S2CID 41014984.
  10. ^ Gibson TJ (October 2009). "Cell regulation: determined to signal discrete cooperation". Trends in Biochemical Sciences. 34 (10): 471–82. doi:10.1016/j.tibs.2009.06.007. PMID 19744855.
  11. ^ a b c Cermakova, Katerina; Hodges, H. Courtney (2023-02-06). "Interaction modules that impart specificity to disordered protein". Trends in Biochemical Sciences. 48 (5): S0968–0004(23)00008–7. doi:10.1016/j.tibs.2023.01.004. ISSN 0968-0004. PMC 10106370. PMID 36754681.
  12. ^ Pandit B, Sarkozy A, Pennacchio LA, Carta C, Oishi K, Martinelli S, et al. (August 2007). "Gain-of-function RAF1 mutations cause Noonan and LEOPARD syndromes with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy". Nature Genetics. 39 (8): 1007–12. doi:10.1038/ng2073. PMID 17603483. S2CID 19335210.
  13. ^ Eudy JD, Sumegi J (October 1999). "Molecular genetics of Usher syndrome". Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences. 56 (3–4): 258–67. doi:10.1007/s000180050427. PMC 11146852. PMID 11212353. S2CID 2028106.
  14. ^ Kalay E, de Brouwer AP, Caylan R, Nabuurs SB, Wollnik B, Karaguzel A, et al. (December 2005). "A novel D458V mutation in the SANS PDZ binding motif causes atypical Usher syndrome". Journal of Molecular Medicine. 83 (12): 1025–32. doi:10.1007/s00109-005-0719-4. PMID 16283141. S2CID 41415771.
  15. ^ Warnock DG (January 1998). "Liddle syndrome: an autosomal dominant form of human hypertension". Kidney International. 53 (1): 18–24. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1755.1998.00728.x. PMID 9452995.
  16. ^ Furuhashi M, Kitamura K, Adachi M, Miyoshi T, Wakida N, Ura N, et al. (January 2005). "Liddle's syndrome caused by a novel mutation in the proline-rich PY motif of the epithelial sodium channel beta-subunit". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 90 (1): 340–4. doi:10.1210/jc.2004-1027. PMID 15483078.
  17. ^ Davey NE, Travé G, Gibson TJ (March 2011). "How viruses hijack cell regulation". Trends in Biochemical Sciences. 36 (3): 159–69. doi:10.1016/j.tibs.2010.10.002. PMID 21146412.
  18. ^ a b c Kadaveru K, Vyas J, Schiller MR (May 2008). "Viral infection and human disease--insights from minimotifs". Frontiers in Bioscience. 13 (13): 6455–71. doi:10.2741/3166. PMC 2628544. PMID 18508672.
  19. ^ Sallee NA, Rivera GM, Dueber JE, Vasilescu D, Mullins RD, Mayer BJ, Lim WA (August 2008). "The pathogen protein EspF(U) hijacks actin polymerization using mimicry and multivalency". Nature. 454 (7207): 1005–8. Bibcode:2008Natur.454.1005S. doi:10.1038/nature07170. PMC 2749708. PMID 18650806.
  20. ^ Lencer WI, Constable C, Moe S, Jobling MG, Webb HM, Ruston S, et al. (November 1995). "_targeting of cholera toxin and Escherichia coli heat labile toxin in polarized epithelia: role of COOH-terminal KDEL". The Journal of Cell Biology. 131 (4): 951–62. doi:10.1083/jcb.131.4.951. PMC 2200010. PMID 7490296.
  21. ^ Wells JA, McClendon CL (December 2007). "Reaching for high-hanging fruit in drug discovery at protein-protein interfaces". Nature. 450 (7172): 1001–9. Bibcode:2007Natur.450.1001W. doi:10.1038/nature06526. PMID 18075579. S2CID 205211934.
  22. ^ Vassilev LT, Vu BT, Graves B, Carvajal D, Podlaski F, Filipovic Z, et al. (February 2004). "In vivo activation of the p53 pathway by small-molecule antagonists of MDM2". Science. 303 (5659): 844–8. Bibcode:2004Sci...303..844V. doi:10.1126/science.1092472. PMID 14704432. S2CID 16132757.
  23. ^ Goodman SL, Hölzemann G, Sulyok GA, Kessler H (February 2002). "Nanomolar small molecule inhibitors for alphav(beta)6, alphav(beta)5, and alphav(beta)3 integrins". Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. 45 (5): 1045–51. doi:10.1021/jm0102598. PMID 11855984.
  24. ^ Oliveira-Ferrer L, Hauschild J, Fiedler W, Bokemeyer C, Nippgen J, Celik I, Schuch G (December 2008). "Cilengitide induces cellular detachment and apoptosis in endothelial and glioma cells mediated by inhibition of FAK/src/AKT pathway". Journal of Experimental & Clinical Cancer Research. 27 (1): 86. doi:10.1186/1756-9966-27-86. PMC 2648308. PMID 19114005.
  25. ^ Gril B, Vidal M, Assayag F, Poupon MF, Liu WQ, Garbay C (July 2007). "Grb2-SH3 ligand inhibits the growth of HER2+ cancer cells and has antitumor effects in human cancer xenografts alone and in combination with docetaxel". International Journal of Cancer. 121 (2): 407–15. doi:10.1002/ijc.22674. PMC 2755772. PMID 17372910.
  26. ^ Feller SM, Lewitzky M (2006). "Potential disease _targets for drugs that disrupt protein-- protein interactions of Grb2 and Crk family adaptors". Current Pharmaceutical Design. 12 (5): 529–48. doi:10.2174/138161206775474369. PMID 16472145.
  27. ^ Metallo SJ (August 2010). "Intrinsically disordered proteins are potential drug _targets". Current Opinion in Chemical Biology. 14 (4): 481–8. doi:10.1016/j.cbpa.2010.06.169. PMC 2918680. PMID 20598937.
  28. ^ Haslam NJ, Shields DC (May 2012). "Profile-based short linear protein motif discovery". BMC Bioinformatics. 13: 104. doi:10.1186/1471-2105-13-104. PMC 3534220. PMID 22607209.
  29. ^ a b Gould CM, Diella F, Via A, Puntervoll P, Gemünd C, Chabanis-Davidson S, et al. (January 2010). "ELM: the status of the 2010 eukaryotic linear motif resource". Nucleic Acids Research. 38 (Database issue): D167-80. doi:10.1093/nar/gkp1016. PMC 2808914. PMID 19920119.
  30. ^ a b Rajasekaran S, Balla S, Gradie P, Gryk MR, Kadaveru K, Kundeti V, et al. (January 2009). "Minimotif miner 2nd release: a database and web system for motif search". Nucleic Acids Research. 37 (Database issue): D185-90. doi:10.1093/nar/gkn865. PMC 2686579. PMID 18978024.
  31. ^ Gong W, Zhou D, Ren Y, Wang Y, Zuo Z, Shen Y, et al. (January 2008). "PepCyber:P~PEP: a database of human protein protein interactions mediated by phosphoprotein-binding domains". Nucleic Acids Research. 36 (Database issue): D679-83. doi:10.1093/nar/gkm854. PMC 2238930. PMID 18160410.
  32. ^ Obenauer JC, Cantley LC, Yaffe MB (July 2003). "Scansite 2.0: Proteome-wide prediction of cell signaling interactions using short sequence motifs". Nucleic Acids Research. 31 (13): 3635–41. doi:10.1093/nar/gkg584. PMC 168990. PMID 12824383.
  33. ^ Beuming T, Skrabanek L, Niv MY, Mukherjee P, Weinstein H (March 2005). "PDZBase: a protein-protein interaction database for PDZ-domains". Bioinformatics. 21 (6): 827–8. doi:10.1093/bioinformatics/bti098. PMID 15513994.
  34. ^ Rawlings ND, Barrett AJ, Bateman A (January 2010). "MEROPS: the peptidase database". Nucleic Acids Research. 38 (Database issue): D227-33. doi:10.1093/nar/gkp971. PMC 2808883. PMID 19892822.
  35. ^ Igarashi Y, Eroshkin A, Gramatikova S, Gramatikoff K, Zhang Y, Smith JW, et al. (January 2007). "CutDB: a proteolytic event database". Nucleic Acids Research. 35 (Database issue): D546-9. doi:10.1093/nar/gkl813. PMC 1669773. PMID 17142225.
  36. ^ Vyas J, Nowling RJ, Meusburger T, Sargeant D, Kadaveru K, Gryk MR, et al. (June 2010). "MimoSA: a system for minimotif annotation". BMC Bioinformatics. 11: 328. doi:10.1186/1471-2105-11-328. PMC 2905367. PMID 20565705.
  37. ^ Praefcke GJ, Ford MG, Schmid EM, Olesen LE, Gallop JL, Peak-Chew SY, et al. (November 2004). "Evolving nature of the AP2 alpha-appendage hub during clathrin-coated vesicle endocytosis". The EMBO Journal. 23 (22): 4371–83. doi:10.1038/sj.emboj.7600445. PMC 526462. PMID 15496985.
  38. ^ Davey NE, Haslam NJ, Shields DC, Edwards RJ (July 2011). "SLiMSearch 2.0: biological context for short linear motifs in proteins". Nucleic Acids Research. 39 (Web Server issue): W56-60. doi:10.1093/nar/gkr402. PMC 3125787. PMID 21622654.
  39. ^ Hugo W, Song F, Aung Z, Ng SK, Sung WK (April 2010). "SLiM on Diet: finding short linear motifs on domain interaction interfaces in Protein Data Bank". Bioinformatics. 26 (8): 1036–42. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.720.9626. doi:10.1093/bioinformatics/btq065. PMID 20167627.
  40. ^ Neduva V, Russell RB (July 2006). "DILIMOT: discovery of linear motifs in proteins". Nucleic Acids Research. 34 (Web Server issue): W350-5. doi:10.1093/nar/gkl159. PMC 1538856. PMID 16845024.
  41. ^ Davey NE, Haslam NJ, Shields DC, Edwards RJ (July 2010). "SLiMFinder: a web server to find novel, significantly over-represented, short protein motifs". Nucleic Acids Research. 38 (Web Server issue): W534-9. doi:10.1093/nar/gkq440. PMC 2896084. PMID 20497999.
  42. ^ Mészáros B, Simon I, Dosztányi Z (May 2009). Casadio R (ed.). "Prediction of protein binding regions in disordered proteins". PLOS Computational Biology. 5 (5): e1000376. Bibcode:2009PLSCB...5E0376M. doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000376. PMC 2671142. PMID 19412530.
  43. ^ Cheng Y, Oldfield CJ, Meng J, Romero P, Uversky VN, Dunker AK (November 2007). "Mining alpha-helix-forming molecular recognition features with cross species sequence alignments". Biochemistry. 46 (47): 13468–77. doi:10.1021/bi7012273. PMC 2570644. PMID 17973494.
  44. ^ Disfani FM, Hsu WL, Mizianty MJ, Oldfield CJ, Xue B, Dunker AK, et al. (June 2012). "MoRFpred, a computational tool for sequence-based prediction and characterization of short disorder-to-order transitioning binding regions in proteins". Bioinformatics. 28 (12): i75-83. doi:10.1093/bioinformatics/bts209. PMC 3371841. PMID 22689782.
  45. ^ Malhis N, Gsponer J (June 2015). "Computational identification of MoRFs in protein sequences". Bioinformatics. 31 (11): 1738–44. doi:10.1093/bioinformatics/btv060. PMC 4443681. PMID 25637562.
  46. ^ Malhis N, Wong ET, Nassar R, Gsponer J (30 October 2015). "Computational Identification of MoRFs in Protein Sequences Using Hierarchical Application of Bayes Rule". PLOS ONE. 10 (10): e0141603. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1041603M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0141603. PMC 4627796. PMID 26517836.
  47. ^ Malhis N, Jacobson M, Gsponer J (July 2016). "MoRFchibi SYSTEM: software tools for the identification of MoRFs in protein sequences". Nucleic Acids Research. 44 (W1): W488-93. doi:10.1093/nar/gkw409. PMC 4987941. PMID 27174932.
  48. ^ Mooney C, Pollastri G, Shields DC, Haslam NJ (January 2012). "Prediction of short linear protein binding regions". Journal of Molecular Biology. 415 (1): 193–204. doi:10.1016/j.jmb.2011.10.025. hdl:10197/3395. PMID 22079048.
edit

SLiM databases

edit

SLiM discovery tools

edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Short_linear_motif&oldid=1227605997"
  NODES
Association 1
Idea 1
idea 1
INTERN 2
Note 1