Wikipedia

History of the Jews in Ukraine

(Redirected from Ukrainian-Jewish)

The history of the Jews in Ukraine dates back over a thousand years; Jewish communities have existed in the modern territory of Ukraine from the time of the Kievan Rus' (late 9th to mid-13th century).[10][11] Important Jewish religious and cultural movements, from Hasidism to Zionism, arose there. According to the World Jewish Congress, the Jewish community in Ukraine constitutes Europe's fourth-largest and the world's 11th-largest.[3]

Ukrainian Jews
יהדות אוקראינה‎
Українськi євреї
The location of Ukraine in Europe
Total population
2021 est. 43,000 core – 140,000 enlarged [1] 45,000 by 2023 est. [2]
Regions with significant populations
Kyiv110,000[3]
Dnipro60,000[3]
Kharkiv45,000[3]
Odesa45,000[3]
Languages
Russian (83.0%), Ukrainian[4][5][6][7] (13.4%), Yiddish[4][8] (3.1%), Hebrew[9]
Religion
Judaism, Christianity and other (including atheism)
Related ethnic groups
Jews, Ashkenazi Jews, Russian Jews, Mountain Jews, Belarusian Jews, Romanian Jews, Hungarian Jews, Polish Jews

At times it flourished, while at other times it faced persecution and anti-Semitic discrimination. In the Ukrainian People's Republic (1917–1920), Yiddish became a state language, along with Ukrainian and Russian. At that time, the Jewish National Union was created and the community was granted autonomous status.[12] Yiddish was used on Ukrainian currency between 1917 and 1920.[13] Before World War II, slightly less than one-third of Ukraine's urban population consisted of Jews.[14]

In the westernmost region, Jews were mentioned for the first time in records in 1030. During the Khmelnytsky Uprising between 1648 and 1657, an army of Cossacks massacred and took large numbers of Jews, Roman Catholics, and Uniate Christians into captivity. One estimate (1996) reported that 15,000-30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were completely destroyed.[15] More recent estimates (2014) report mortality of 3,000-6,000 people between the years 1648–1649.[16]

During 1821 anti-Jewish riots in Odesa followed the death of the Greek Orthodox Patriarch in Constantinople, in which 14 Jews were recorded killed. Some sources claim this episode as the first pogrom.[17] At the start of the 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued, leading to large-scale emigration. In 1915, the imperial Russian government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas.[18][19]

During the Russian Revolution and ensuing Civil War, an estimated 31,071 Jews were killed in pogroms between 1918 and 1920.[20] During the Ukrainian People's Republic (1917–21),[21] pogroms continued. In Ukraine, the number of civilian Jews killed by the Ukrainian Army under Symon Petliura during the period was estimated at between 35,000 and 100,000.[22]

Pogroms erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province of Volhynia and spread to many other regions[23] and continued until 1921.[24] The actions of the Soviet government by 1927 led to a growing antisemitism.[25]

Total civilian losses in Ukraine during World War II and the German occupation are estimated at seven million. More than one million Soviet Jews, including 225,000 in Belarus,[26] were killed by the Einsatzgruppen and their many Ukrainian supporters. Most of them were killed in Ukraine because most pre-WWII Soviet Jews lived in the Pale of Settlement, of which Ukraine was the biggest part. The major massacres against Jews occurred mainly in the first phase of the occupation, although they continued until the return of the Red Army. In 1959 Ukraine had 840,000 Jews, a decrease of almost 70% from 1941 totals (within Ukraine's current borders). Ukraine's Jewish population continued to decline significantly during the Cold War. In 1989, Ukraine's Jewish population was only slightly more than half of what it was in 1959. During and after the collapse of communism in the 1990s, the majority of Jews in 1989 left the country and moved abroad (mostly to Israel).[27] Antisemitism, including violent attacks on Jews, is still a problem in Ukraine.[28]

Kievan Rus'

edit
Main article: Kievan Rus'

By the 11th century, Byzantine Jews of Constantinople had familial, cultural, and theological ties with the Jews of Kyiv. For instance, some 11th-century Jews from Kievan Rus participated in an anti-Karaite assembly held in either Thessaloniki or Constantinople.[29] One of the three Kyivan city gates in the times of Yaroslav the Wise was called Zhydovski (Judaic).

Galicia-Volhynia

edit
Main articles: Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia and Shtetl

In Galicia, Jews were mentioned for the first time in 1030. From the second part of the 14th century, they were subjects of Polish kings and magnates. The Jewish population of Galicia and Bukovina, part of Austria-Hungary, made up 5% of the global Jewish population.

Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

edit
Main articles: Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, History of the Jews in Poland, and Lithuanian Jews

From the founding of the Kingdom of Poland in the 10th century through the creation of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569, Poland was one of the most diverse countries in Europe. It became home to one of the world's largest and most vibrant Jewish communities. The Jewish community in the territory of Ukraine-proper during the Commonwealth became one of the largest and most important ethnic minority groups in Ukraine.[citation needed]

Cossack Uprising and the Deluge

edit
Main article: Khmelnytsky Uprising

Ukrainian Cossack Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky led a Cossack uprising, known as Khmelnytsky Uprising (1648–1657), under the premise that the Poles had sold them as slaves "into the hands of the accursed Jews." It is estimated that at that time the Jewish population in Ukraine numbered 51,325.[30] An army of Cossacks massacred and took into captivity numerous Jews, Roman Catholics and Ukrainian Greek Catholics in 1648–49.

A 1996 estimate reports that 15,000-30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were destroyed.[15] A 2014 estimate reduces the toll to 3,000-6,000 from 1648 to 1649; of these, 3,000-6,000 Jews were killed by Cossacks in Nemirov in May 1648 and 1,500 in Tulczyn in July 1648.[16]

Rise of Hasidism and internal struggles

edit
Main articles: Hasidic Judaism, Jacob Frank, and Haskalah
 
Cossack Mamay and the Haidamaka hang a Jew by his heels. Ukrainian folk art, 19th century

The Cossack Uprising and the Deluge left a deep and lasting impression on Jewish social and spiritual life.[citation needed]

This was a time of mysticism and overly formal rabbinism. The teachings of Israel ben Eliezer, known as the Baal Shem Tov, or BeShT, (1698–1760) had a profound effect on Eastern European Jews.[citation needed] His disciples taught and encouraged a new and fervent brand of Judaism, related to Kabbalah, known as Hasidism. The rise of Hasidism influenced Haredi Judaism, with a continuous influence through many Hasidic dynasties.

A different movement was started by Jacob Frank in the middle of the 18th century. Frank's teachings were unorthodox (such as purification through transgression and adoption of elements of Christianity). He was excommunicated along with his numerous followers. They eventually converted to Catholicism.[31]

Russian Empire and Austrian rule

edit
Main articles: Pale of Settlement, Cantonist, Pogrom, May Laws, Jewish agricultural colonies in the Russian Empire, and History of the Jews in Odesa
 
Map of the Pale of Settlement.

The traditional measures used to keep the Russian Empire free of Jews[citation needed] were hindered when the main territory of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was annexed during the partitions of Poland. During the second (1793) and the third (1795) partitions, large populations of Jews were absorbed by the Russian Empire, and Catherine the Great established the Pale of Settlement that included Congress Poland and Crimea.

During 1821 anti-Jewish riots in Odesa after the death of the Greek Orthodox patriarch in Constantinople, 14 Jews were killed. Some sources mark this episode as the first pogrom,[32] while according to others (such as the Jewish Encyclopedia, 1911 ed.) say the first pogrom was an 1859 riot in Odesa. The term became common after a wave of anti-Jewish violence swept the southern Russian Empire (including Ukraine) between 1881 and 1884, after Jews were blamed for the assassination of Alexander II.

In May 1882, Alexander III of Russia introduced temporary regulations called May Laws that remained in effect until 1917. Systematic policies of discrimination, strict quotas on the number of Jews allowed to obtain education and professions caused widespread poverty and mass emigration. In 1886, an edict of Expulsion was applied to Jews in Kyiv. In 1893–1894, some areas of Crimea were removed from the Pale.

When Alexander III died in Crimea on 20 October 1894, according to Simon Dubnow: "as the body of the deceased was carried by railway to St. Petersburg, the same rails were carrying the Jewish exiles from Yalta to the Pale. The reign of Alexander III began with pogroms and concluded with expulsions."[33]

Odesa became the home of a large Jewish community during the 19th century, and by 1897 Jews were estimated to account for some 37% of the population.[34]

Political activism and emigration

edit
Main articles: Bilu (movement); Odessa Committee; General Jewish Labour Bund in Lithuania, Poland and Russia; October Revolution; and Jewish Bolshevism

Jews were over-represented in the Russian revolutionary leadership. However, most were hostile to Jewish culture and Jewish political parties, and were loyal to the Communist Party's atheism and proletarian internationalism, and committed to stamping out any sign of "Jewish cultural particularism".

Counter-revolutionary groups, including the Black Hundreds, opposed the Revolution with violent attacks on socialists and pogroms against Jews. A backlash came from the conservative elements of society, notably in spasmodic anti-Jewish attacks – around five hundred were killed in a single day in Odesa. Nicholas II claimed that 90% of revolutionaries were Jews.

Early 20th century

edit
 
The victims of a 1905 pogrom in Yekaterinoslav

At the start of the 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued to occur in cities and towns across the Russian Empire such as Kishinev, Kyiv, Odesa, and many others. Numerous Jewish self-defense groups were organized to prevent the outbreak of pogroms among which the most successful one was under the leadership of Mishka Yaponchik in Odesa.

In 1905, a series of pogroms erupted at the same time as the Revolution against the government of Nicholas II. The chief organizers of the pogroms were the members of the Union of the Russian People (commonly known as the "Black Hundreds").[35]

From 1911 to 1913, the antisemitic tenor of the period was characterized by a number of blood libel cases (accusations of Jews murdering Christians for ritual purposes). One of the most famous was the two-year trial of Menahem Mendel Beilis, who was charged with the murder of a Christian boy.[36] The trial was showcased by the authorities to illustrate the perfidy of the Jewish population.[37]

In 1912-1914, S. An-sky led the Jewish Ethnographic Expedition to the Pale, which visited around 70 shtetls in Volyn, Podolia, and Galicia (all in modern Ukraine) gathering folk stories, artifacts, recording music, and making photos, as an attempt to preserve and salvage traditional Ashkenazim culture that was vanishing because of modernization, pogroms, and emigration.

From March to May 1915, in the face of the German army, the government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas, mainly the Pale of Settlement.[18][19]

World War I aftermath

edit
Further information: Pogroms of the Russian Civil War

During the 1917 Russian Revolution and the ensuing Russian Civil War, an estimated 70,000 to 250,000 Jewish civilians were killed in atrocities throughout the former Russian Empire. In modern Ukraine an estimated 31,071 died in 1918–1920.[20]

Ukrainian People's Republic

edit
Main article: Ukrainian People's Republic
 
1917. 100 karbovanets of the Ukrainian National Republic. Revers. 3 languages: Ukrainian, Polish and Yiddish.

During the establishment of the Ukrainian People's Republic (UPR, 1917–1921),[21] pogroms continued. In the UPR, Yiddish was an official language,[38] while all government posts and institutions had Jewish members.[38] A Ministry for Jewish Affairs was established (it was the first modern state to do so).[21][38] Rights of Jewish culture were guaranteed.[21] Jewish parties abstained or voted against the Tsentralna Rada's Fourth Universal of 25 January 1918 which was aimed at breaking ties with Bolshevik Russia and proclaiming a sovereign Ukrainian state,[38] since all Jewish parties were strongly against Ukrainian independence.[38]

In Ukraine alone, the number of civilian Jews killed during the period was estimated to be between 35,000 and 50,000. Archives declassified after 1991 provide evidence of a higher number; in the period from 1918 to 1921, "according to incomplete data, at least 100,000 Jews were killed in Ukraine in the pogroms."[39] The Ukrainian People's Republic did issue orders condemning pogroms and attempted to investigate them.[21] But it lacked authority to stop violence.[21] In the last months of its existence it lacked any power to create social stability.[38]

Among the prominent Ukrainian statesmen of this period were Moisei Rafes, Pinkhas Krasny, Abram Revutsky, Moishe Zilberfarb, and many others. (see General Secretariat of Ukraine) The autonomy of Ukraine was openly greeted by the Ukrainian Jewish Volodymyr Zhabotinsky.

Between April and December 1918 the Ukrainian People's Republic was non-existent and overthrown by the Ukrainian State of Pavlo Skoropadsky[21][40] who ended the experiment in Jewish autonomy.[38]

Provisional Government of Russia and Soviets

edit

The February 1917 revolution brought a liberal Provisional Government to power in the Russian Empire. On 21 March/3 April, the government removed all "discrimination based upon ethnic religious or social grounds".[41] The Pale was officially abolished. The removal of the restrictions on Jews' geographical mobility and educational opportunities led to a migration to the country's major cities.[42]

One week after the 25 October / 7 November 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, the new government proclaimed the "Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples [Nations] of Russia," promising all nationalities the rights of equality, self-determination and secession. Jews were not specifically mentioned in the declaration, reflecting Lenin's view that Jews did not constitute a nation.[43]

In 1918, the RSFSR Council of Ministers issued a decree entitled "On the Separation of Church from State and School from Church", depriving religious communities of the status of juridical persons, the right to own property and the right to enter into contracts. The decree nationalized the property of religious communities and banned their assessment of religious tuition. As a result, religion could be taught or studied only in private.[44]

 
Main Synagogue of Yelisavetgrad looted by Hryhoriv's rebels

On 1 February 1918 the Commissariat for Jewish National Affairs was established as a subsection of the Commissariat for Nationality Affairs. It was mandated to establish the "dictatorship of the proletariat in the Jewish streets" and attract the Jewish masses to the regime while advising local and central institutions on Jewish issues. The Commissariat was also expected to fight the influence of Zionist and Jewish-Socialist Parties.[45][46] On 27 July 1918 the Council of People's Commissars issued a decree stating that antisemitism is "fatal to the cause of the ... revolution". Pogroms were officially outlawed.[47] On 20 October 1918 the Jewish section of the CPSU (Yevsektsia) was established for the Party's Jewish members; its goals were similar to those of the Jewish Commissariat.[41][48][49][50][51]

During the Hryhoriv Uprising in May 1919, almost 3000 Jews of Yelisavetgrad (today Kropyvnytskyi) were murdered and their property stolen.

The White Army and counterrevolutionary pogroms

edit

In contrast with the Bolshevik government's official policy of equality among citizens, antisemitism remained deeply entrenched in the political and social ideologies of the tsarist counterrevolutionaries, especially among paramilitary groups such as the Black Hundreds. These militias incited and organized pogroms against Russian Jews. The official slogan of the Black Hundreds was "Bei Zhidov," meaning 'Beat the Jews.'[52] Thus, during the Russian Civil War that followed the 1917 Revolution, the Jews became a crucial site of the conflict between revolutionary Reds and counterrevolutionary Whites, particularly in the contested territory of Ukraine. The Bolsheviks' official opposition to antisemitism—coupled with the prominence of Jews such as Leon Trotsky within the Bolshevik ranks—allowed the Christian nationalist movements of both the White Army and the emergent Ukrainian National Republic to link Ukrainian Jews to the despised communism. These connections, combined with the cultural tradition of antisemitism among Russian peasantry,[53] provided ample justification for the Whites to attack Ukraine's Jewish population. Between 1918 and 1921, almost all of the approximately 2,000 pogroms carried out in Ukraine were organized by White Army forces.[54] eyewitnesses reported hearing counterrevolutionary militia members expound slogans such as, "We beat the Yids, we beat the Commune", and "This is the answer to the Bolsheviks for the Red Terror."[53] Recent studies hold that about 30,000 Jews were killed in these pogroms, while another 150,000 died from wounds sustained during the violence.[54]

Pogroms in western Ukraine

edit
 
The victims of a pogrom in Khodorkiv [uk] (Ходорків), committed by the Directorate of Ukraine in 1919. From The Pritzker Family National Photography Collection, National Library of Israel

The pogroms that erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province of Volhynia spread during February and March to the cities, towns, and villages of many other regions of Ukraine.[23] After Sarny it was the turn of Ovruch, northwest of Kyiv. In Tetiev on 25 March, approximately 4,000 Jews were murdered, half in a synagogue set ablaze by Cossack troops under Colonels Kurovsky, Cherkowsy, and Shliatoshenko.[23] Then Vashilkov (6 and 7 April).[55] In Dubovo (17 June) 800 Jews were decapitated in assembly-line fashion.[23] According to David A. Chapin, the town of Proskurov (now Khmelnitsky), near the city of Sudilkov, "was the site of the worst atrocity committed against Jews this century before the Nazis." Pogroms continued until 1921.[24]

Pogroms across Podolia

edit
See also: Schwartzbard trial

On 15 February 1919, during the Ukrainian-Soviet war, Otaman Ivan Semesenko initiated a pogrom Proskurov in which many Jews were massacred on Shabbat (parashah Tesaveh). Semesenko claimed that the pogrom was in retaliation for a previous Bolshevik uprising that he believed was led by Jews.[56]

According to the pinqasim record books those murdered in the pogrom included 390 men, 309 women and 76 children. The number of wounded exceeded 500. Two weeks later Order 131 was published in the central newspaper[clarification needed] by the head of Directorate of Ukraine. In it Symon Petliura denounced such actions and eventually executed Otaman Semesenko by firing-squad in November 1919. Semesenko's brigade was disarmed and dissolved. This event is especially remarkable because it was used to justify Sholem Schwarzbard's assassination of the Ukrainian leader in 1926. Although Petliura's direct involvement was never proven, Schwartzbard was acquitted in revenge. The series of Jewish pogroms around Ukraine culminated in the Kyiv pogroms of 1919 between June and October of that year.[57][58]

Bolsheviks/USSR consolidation of power

edit

In July 1919, the Central Jewish Commissariat dissolved the kehillot (Jewish Communal Councils). The kehillot had provided social services to the Jewish community.[59]

From 1919 to 1920, Jewish parties and Zionist organizations were driven underground as the Communist government sought to abolish all potential opposition.[60][61] The Yevsektsiya Jewish section of the Soviet Communist party was at the forefront of the anti-religious campaigns of the 1920s that led to the closing of religious institutions, the break-up of religious communities and the further restriction of access to religious education.[48] To that end a series of "community trials" against the Jewish religion were held. The last known such trial, on the subject of circumcision, was held in 1928 in Kharkiv.[49][50] At the same time, the body worked to establish a secular identity for the Jewish community.[51]

In 1921 many Jews[62] emigrated to Poland, as they were entitled by a peace treaty in Riga to choose the country they preferred. Several hundred thousand joined the already numerous Jewish minority of the Polish Second Republic. Also, during the interwar period, thousands of Jewish refugees from the Soviet Ukraine migrated to Romania.[63][64][65]

On 31 January 1924 the Commissariat for Nationalities' Affairs was disbanded.[66] On 29 August 1924 an official agency for Jewish resettlement, the Commission for the Settlement of Jewish Toilers on the Land (KOMZET), was established. KOMZET studied, managed and funded projects for Jewish resettlement in rural areas.[67][68] A public organization, the Society for the Agricultural Organization of Working Class Jews in the USSR (OZET), was created in January 1925 to help recruit colonists and support the colonization work of KOMZET.[69] For the first few years the government encouraged Jewish settlements, particularly in Ukraine. Support for the project dwindled throughout the next decade.[70] In 1938 OZET was disbanded, following years of declining activity. The Soviets set up three Jewish national raions in Ukraine as well as two in the Crimea – national raions occupied the 3rd level of the Soviet system, but were all disbanded by the end of World War II.[71]

The cities with the largest populations of Jews in 1926 were Odesa, 154,000 or 36.5% of the total population; Kyiv, 140,500 or 27.3%; Kharkiv, 81,500 or 19.5%; and Dnipropetrovsk, 62,000 or 26.7%. In 1931 Lviv's Jewish population numbered 98,000 or 31.9%, and in Chernivtsi, 42,600 or 37.9%.[72]

On 8 April 1929 the new Law on Religious Associations codified all previous religious legislation. All meetings of religious associations were required to have their agenda approved in advance; lists of members of religious associations had to be provided to the authorities.[73] In 1930 the Yevsektsia was dissolved,[51] leaving no central Soviet-Jewish organization. Although the body had served to undermine Jewish religious life, its dissolution led to the disintegration of Jewish secular life as well; Jewish cultural and educational organizations gradually disappeared.[74] When the Soviet government reintroduced the use of internal passports in 1933, "Jewish" was considered an ethnicity for those purposes.[75]

The Soviet famine of 1932–1933 affected the Jewish population,[76] and led to a migration from shtetls to overcrowded cities.[77]

As the Soviet government annexed territory from Poland, Romania (both would be incorporated into the Ukrainian SSR after World War II[21]) and the Baltic states,[78] roughly two million Jews became Soviet citizens.[79][80] Restrictions on Jews that had existed in those countries were lifted.[81] At the same time, Jewish organizations in the transferred territories were shut down and their leaders were arrested and exiled.[82] Approximately 250,000 Jews escaped or were evacuated from the annexed territories to the Soviet interior prior to the Nazi invasion.[83]

Jewish settlement in Crimea

edit

Main article: Jewish autonomy in Crimea
Further information: Khazar Judaism, Crimean Karaites, and Krymchaks

In 1921, Crimea became an autonomous republic. In 1923, the All-Union Central Committee passed a motion to resettle a large number of the Jewish population from Ukrainian and Belarusian cities to Crimea, numbering 570,400 families. The plan to further resettle Jewish families was confirmed by the Central Committee of the USSR on 15 July 1926, assigning 124 million roubles to the task and also receiving 67 million from foreign sources.[84]

The Soviet initiative of Jewish settlement in Crimea was opposed by Symon Petliura,[85] who regarded it as a provocation. This train of thought was supported by Arnold Margolin[86] who stated that it would be dangerous to set up Jewish colonies there.

The Soviets twice sought to establish Jewish autonomy in Crimea; once, in the 1920s, with the support of the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, and again in 1944, by the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee.[25][87]

World War II

edit
 
A map of the Holocaust in Ukraine
Main articles: The Holocaust in Ukraine, Lviv pogroms, Reichskommissariat Ukraine, Ukrainian collaboration with Nazi Germany, Babi Yar, and 1941 Odessa massacre

The total number of civilians who died during the war and the German occupation of Ukraine is estimated to be as high as seven million. This estimate includes over one million Jews who were shot and killed by the Einsatzgruppen and local Ukrainian collaborators.[88] The excuse of "Jewish Bolshevism" was also used to carry them out.[89][90]

The total number of Jews killed in the Holocaust in Eastern Ukraine, or the Ukrainian SSR (within its 1938 borders), is estimated to be slightly less than 700,000 out of a total pre-Holocaust Jewish population of slightly over 1.5 million.[91] Within the borders of Modern Ukraine, the death toll is estimated to be around 900,000.

Post-war situation

edit

Ukraine had 840,000 Jews in 1959, a decrease of almost 70% from 1941 (within Ukraine's current borders). Ukraine's Jewish population declined significantly during the Cold War. In 1989, Ukraine's Jewish population was only slightly more than half of what it had been in 1959.

Historical Ukrainian Jewish population
YearPop.±%
165040,000—    
1765300,000+650.0%
18972,680,000+793.3%
19262,720,000+1.5%
19412,700,000−0.7%
1959840,446−68.9%
1970777,406−7.5%
1979634,420−18.4%
1989487,555−23.1%
2001106,600−78.1%
201071,500−32.9%
201467,000−6.3%
Source:

Such immigrants included artists, such as Marina Maximilian Blumin and street artist Klone,[102] as well as activists including Gennady Riger and Lia Shemtov.

Independent Ukraine

edit
 
Ketubah from Ukraine, from the collections of the National Library of Israel

In 1989, a Soviet census counted 487,000 Jews living in Ukraine.[103][104] Although discrimination by the state all but halted after Ukrainian independence in 1991, Jews were still discriminated against during the 1990s.[105] For instance, Jews were not allowed to attend some educational institutions.[105] Antisemitism has since declined.[106]

The overwhelming majority of the Jews who remained in Ukraine in 1989 then moved to other countries in the 1990s during and after the collapse of Communism.[27] By 1999 there were various Ukrainian Jewish organizations that disputed each other's legitimacy.[107]

Some 266,300 Ukrainian Jews emigrated to Israel in the 1990s.[106] The 2001 Ukrainian Census counted 106,600 Jews living in Ukraine[108] (the number of Jews also dropped due to a negative birthrate).[106] According to the Public Diplomacy and Diaspora Affairs Minister of Israel, early 2012 there were 250,000 Jews in Ukraine, half of them living in Kyiv.[9] According to the European Jewish Congress, as of 2014, 360,000–400,000 Jews remained.[101]

In November 2007, an estimated 700 Torah scrolls confiscated from Jewish communities during the Soviet era were returned to Jewish communes by state authorities.[109]

The Ukrainian Jewish Committee was established in 2008 in Kyiv to concentrate the efforts of Jewish leaders in Ukraine on resolving the community's strategic problems and addressing socially significant issues. The Committee declared its intention to become one of the world's most influential organizations protecting the rights of Jews and "the most important and powerful structure protecting human rights in Ukraine".[110]

In the 2012 Ukrainian parliamentary elections, All-Ukrainian Union "Svoboda" won its first seats in the Ukrainian Parliament,[111][112][113][114][115][116] garnering 10.44% of the popular vote and the fourth most seats among national political parties;[117][118] This led to concern among Jewish organizations that accused "Svoboda" of Nazi sympathies and antisemitism.[119][111][112][113][120][115][116][121] In May 2013, the World Jewish Congress listed the party as neo-Nazi.[122] "Svoboda" has denied the charges.[112][123][124][125][126][127][128]

Antisemitic graffiti and violence against Jews are still a problem.[129]

After the Euromaidan protests, unrest gripped southern and eastern Ukraine, and this escalated in April 2014 into the war in Donbas[130] and the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.

In April 2014, in the city of Donetsk occupied by Russian-backed forces, leaflets were distributed by three masked men as people left a synagogue, ordering Jews to register to avoid losing their property and citizenship "given that the leaders of the Jewish community of Ukraine support the Banderite junta in Kyiv[a] and are hostile to the Orthodox Donetsk Republic and its citizens".[131][132][133] After the distribution of the flyers was reported, Denis Pushilin, whom the leaflets claimed had issued the discriminatory order, denied any involvement on behalf of himself and the government of the Donetsk People's Republic. The chief rabbi of the city of Donetsk, Pinchas Vishedski, later called the distribution of the flyers a "hoax" that was carried out by an unknown party, adding "I think it's someone trying to use the Jewish community in Donetsk as an instrument in this conflict. That's why we're upset."[131]

After the Euromaidan, the number of Ukrainian Jews making aliyah from Ukraine grew 142% during the first four months of 2014 compared to the previous year.[134] 800 people arrived in Israel over January–April, and over 200 signed up for May 2014.[134] However, chief rabbi and Chabad emissary of Kyiv Rabbi Jonathan Markovitch said in late April 2014 "Today, you can come to Kyiv, Dnipro or Odesa and walk through the streets openly dressed as a Jew, with nothing to be afraid of".[135]

In August 2014, the Jewish Telegraphic Agency reported that the International Fellowship of Christians and Jews was organizing chartered flights to allow at least 150 Ukrainian Jews to immigrate to Israel in September. Jewish organizations within Ukraine, as well as the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, the Jewish Agency for Israel and the Jewish community of Dnipropetrovsk, arranged temporary homes and shelters for hundreds of Jews who fled the war in Donbas in eastern Ukraine. Hundreds of Jews reportedly fled the cities of Luhansk and Donetsk.[136][137]

In 2014 Ihor Kolomoyskyi and Volodymyr Groysman were appointed Governor of Dnipropetrovsk Oblast and Speaker of the Parliament respectively.[138][139][140][141] Groysman became Prime Minister of Ukraine in April 2016.[142]

Ukraine elected its first Jewish president in the 2019 presidential election, when then-comedian, head of Kvartal 95 Studio, and lead actor in the TV series Servant of the People Volodymyr Zelenskyy defeated incumbent Petro Poroshenko with 73.23% of the vote, the biggest landslide victory in the history of Ukrainian presidential elections.[143] During the brief overlap of Zelenskyy's and Groysman's terms (20 May to 29 August 2019), Ukraine was the only country in the world apart from Israel to have both a Jewish president and prime minister.[143][144][145]

2022 Russian invasion

edit
 
A Ukrainian Jewish family arrives in Israel on 6 March 2022
See also: Ukrainian refugee crisis (2022–present)

In February 2022 Russia invaded Ukraine. The Israeli Embassy stayed open on the Sabbath to facilitate the evacuation of Jews. A total of 97 Jews chose to travel to Israel.[146] In addition, 140 Jewish orphans fled to Romania and Moldova.[147][148] 100 Jews fled to Belarus in order to prepare for their eventual move to Israel.[149] On 2 March 2022, the Jewish Agency for Israel reported that hundreds of Jewish war refugees sheltering in Poland, Romania and Moldova were scheduled to leave for Israel the following week.[150] Refugee estimates ranged from 10,000[151] to 15,200 refugees had arrived in Israel.[152] In September 2023 it was reported that over 43,000 Jews from Russia and over 15,000 Jews from Ukraine have fled to Israel.[153] By August 2024, out of an estimated 30,000 Jews who immigrated to Israel since 7 October 2023, 17,000 Jews were from Russia and 900 Jews from Ukraine.[154]

Jewish communities

edit

As of 2012, Ukraine had the fifth-largest Jewish community in Europe and the twelfth-largest in the world, behind South Africa and ahead of Mexico. The majority live in Kyiv (about half),[9] Dnipro, Kharkiv and Odesa.[155] Rabbis Jonathan Markovitch of Kyiv and Shmuel Kaminetsky[156] of Dnipro are considered to be among the most influential foreigners in the country.[157] Opened in October 2012 in Dnipro, the multifunctional Menorah center is among the world's largest Jewish community centers.[158][159]

A growing trend among Israelis is to visit Ukraine on a "roots trip" to learn of Jewish life there.[160] Kyiv is usually mentioned, where it is possible to trace the paths of Sholem Aleichem and Golda Meir; Zhytomyr and Korostyshiv, where one can follow the steps of Haim Nahman Bialik; Berdychiv, where one can trace the life of Mendele Mocher Sforim; Rivne, where one can follow the course of Amos Oz; Buchach – the path of S.Y. Agnon; Drohobych – the place of Maurycy Gottlieb and Bruno Schulz.[160]

Notable Ukrainian Jews

edit
Main article: List of Ukrainian Jews
See also: Category:People of Ukrainian-Jewish descent

Ukrainian Jews

edit

Ukrainian-born American Jews

edit

Ukrainian-descended American Jews

edit

See also

edit

Notes

edit
  1. ^ Apparently referring to the support of the Euromaidan protests (that ousted president Viktor Yanukovich) by prominent Jews in Ukraine.[131]

References

edit
  1. ^ {{cite web |url=https://www.jpr.org.uk/insights/number-jews-living-ukraine-much-lower-estimated-and-will-only-decline-here
  2. ^ "Ukraine". World Jewish Congress. Retrieved 16 December 2024.
  3. ^ a b c d e Ukraine. World Jewish Congress.
  4. ^ a b Grenoble, L. A. (31 July 2003). Language Policy in the Soviet Union. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4020-1298-3.
  5. ^ Berkhoff, Karel C. (15 March 2008). Harvest of Despair: Life and Death in Ukraine under Nazi Rule. Harvard University Press. p. 60. ISBN 978-0-674-02078-8.
  6. ^ Trenin, Dmitriĭ (2002). The End of Eurasia: Russia on the Border Between Geopolitics and Globalization. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. p. 256. ISBN 978-0-87003-190-8.
  7. ^ Ukraine Jews Expect Little to Change Following Election, Jewish Telegraphic Agency (3 October 2007)
  8. ^ Berger, Shlomo (2003). Speaking Jewish - Jewish Speak: Multilingualism in Western Ashkenazic Culture. Peeters Publishers. ISBN 978-90-429-1429-2.
  9. ^ a b c Conservative Judaism movement to establish first community in Ukraine, Haaretz (5 February 2012)
  10. ^ "Серія "Між Львівською площею та Євбазом (сучасна площа Перемоги)" (Фото Києва ::: Фото Киева ::: Photo of Kiev ::: Pictures of Kyiv)". 21 November 2014. Archived from the original on 21 November 2014. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  11. ^ Kipiani, V. "Interesting Books": Jewish addresses of Kyiv. News Broadcasting Service (TSN). 6 April 2012
  12. ^ National policy of the Central Council in conditions of Ukrainian independence (January-April 1918). Electronic library of handbooks.
  13. ^ Money with Yiddish labels. Hadashot by Vaad of Ukraine. January of 2008
  14. ^ "Jewish Urban Population: 1897". Geschichteinchronologie.ch. 7 May 2007. Archived from the original on 23 June 2013. Retrieved 16 April 2013.
  15. ^ a b Paul Magocsi, A History of Ukraine, p. 350. University of Washington Press, 1996.
  16. ^ a b Batista, Jakub (2014). "Chmielnicki Massacres (1648–1649)". In Mikaberidze, Alexander (ed.). Atrocities, Massacres, and War Crimes: An Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio. pp. 100–101. ISBN 978-1-59884-926-4.
  17. ^ "Virtual Excursion on Jewish Odessa - Pogroms". 21 January 2007. Archived from the original on 21 January 2007. Retrieved 3 April 2022.
  18. ^ a b Pinkus 1988, p. 31.
  19. ^ a b Baron 1976, p. 188–91.
  20. ^ a b c Abramson, Henry (1991). "Jewish Representation in the Independent Ukrainian Governments of 1917-1920". Slavic Review. 50 (03). Cambridge University Press: 542–550. doi:10.2307/2499851. JSTOR 2499851: Table, pg. 548
  21. ^ a b c d e f g h Yekelchyk, Serhy (2007). Ukraine: Birth of a Modern Nation. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530546-3.
  22. ^ "20 years before the Holocaust, pogroms killed 100,000 Jews – then were forgotten". The Times of Israel.
  23. ^ a b c d Midlarsky, Manus I. (2005). The Killing Trap: Genocide in the Twentieth Century. Cambridge University Press. pp. 46–47. ISBN 978-0-521-81545-1. Retrieved 17 October 2017.
  24. ^ a b Mayer, Arno J. (15 January 2002). The Furies: Violence and Terror in the French and Russian Revolutions. Princeton University Press. p. 516. ISBN 978-0-691-09015-3.
  25. ^ a b Сергійчук, В. Український Крим К. 2001, p.156
  26. ^ Timothy Snyder (16 July 2009). "Holocaust: The Ignored Reality". The New York Review of Books. Archived from the original (Internet Archive) on 9 January 2014. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
  27. ^ a b "Table 30. Immigrants from the USSR (former) by last republic of residence: 1990-2001" (PDF). Central Bureau of Statistics, State of Israel. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 16 April 2013.
  28. ^ "Ukraine: Treatment of ethnic minorities, including Roma; state protection". Refworld. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. 17 September 2012. Retrieved 31 January 2023.
  29. ^ Kevin A. Brook, The Jews of Khazaria, Second Edition, Rowman and Littlefield, pg. 198.
  30. ^ Subtelny, Orest; Studies, Canadian Institute of Ukrainian (1994). Ukraine: A History. University of Toronto Press. p. 599. ISBN 978-0-8020-7191-0.
  31. ^ "This Day: 230 years since Jewish messiah claimant Jacob Frank's death". The Jerusalem Post (jpost.com). 10 December 2021. Retrieved 10 February 2024.
  32. ^ Odessa pogroms Archived 21 January 2007 at the Wayback Machine at the Center of Jewish Self-Education "Moria"
  33. ^ The Newest History of the Jewish People, 1789–1914 by Simon Dubnow, vol. 3, Russian ed., p. 153.
  34. ^ "Odessa: A City Born Again and Again", by Katherine Avgerinos and Josh Wilson
  35. ^ Baron 1976, p. 67.
  36. ^ Lowe 1993, 284–90
  37. ^ Pinkus 1988, p. 30.
  38. ^ a b c d e f g Magocsi, Paul R. (2010). A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples. University of Toronto Press. p. 537. ISBN 978-1-4426-4085-6.
  39. ^ Kyiv District Commission of the Jewish Public Committee for Relief to Victims of Pogroms. State Archive of the Kyiv Oblast. Fond FR-3050 Archived 30 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine by Vladimir Danilenko, Director of the State Archive of the Kyiv Oblast.
  40. ^ Europa Publications (1999). Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States, 1999. Taylor & Francis Group. p. 849. ISBN 978-1-85743-058-5.
  41. ^ a b Korey 1978, 90.
  42. ^ Insight on the News 21 May 1990b, 17.
  43. ^ Sawyer 2019, pp. 14–15.
  44. ^ Soviet Jewish Affairs Autumn-Winter 1990, 27.
  45. ^ Korey 1978, 79
  46. ^ Pinkus 1988, p. 58–59.
  47. ^ Weinryb 1970, p. 306.
  48. ^ a b Survey January 1968, 77–81.
  49. ^ a b Rothenberg 1970, pp. 172–73.
  50. ^ a b Levin 1988, pp. 78–80.
  51. ^ a b c Pinkus 1988, p. 62.
  52. ^ Klier, John D., and Shlomo Lambroza, eds. Pogroms: Anti-Jewish Violence in Modern Russian History. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
  53. ^ a b Bemporad, Elissa (2019). Legacy of blood : Jews, pogroms, and ritual murder in the lands of the Soviets. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-046645-9. OCLC 1135962272.
  54. ^ a b Hanebrink, Paul (2018). A Specter Haunting Europe The Myth of Judeo-Bolshevism. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-98856-9. OCLC 1357256139.
  55. ^ Tcherikower, Elias. "The Pogroms in Ukraine in 1919". www.berdichev.org. Retrieved 1 February 2023. originally in Yiddish, YIVO Institute, 1965; The Berdichev Revival
  56. ^ "The Pogroms". Grossmanproject.net. 7 November 1905. Retrieved 16 April 2013.
  57. ^ Brown, Michael L. (10 May 1992). Our Hands Are Stained with Blood. Destiny Image Publishers. p. 105. ISBN 9781560430681. Retrieved 10 May 2022 – via Google Books.
  58. ^ "Reflections of a post-Auschwitz Christian". Detroit : Wayne State University Press. 10 May 1989. Retrieved 10 May 2022 – via Internet Archive.
  59. ^ Levin 1988, pp. 81.
  60. ^ Schechtman 1970, p. 113.
  61. ^ Levin 1988, pp. 90–91.
  62. ^ Carr 1971, pp. 401, 413.
  63. ^ "Refugiaţi, emigranţi din URSS către România interbelică".
  64. ^ "Cum a gestionat România criza refugiaţilor din perioada interbelică. 100.000 de evrei, ruşi şi ucraineni s-au refugiat aici la începutul anilor '20". 29 September 2015.
  65. ^ "Refugiaţii evrei, din Ucraina sovietică în Basarabia română".
  66. ^ Pinkus 1988, p. 59.
  67. ^ Levin 1988, pp. 131.
  68. ^ Schwarz 1951, p. 162–63.
  69. ^ Pinkus 1988, p. 64.
  70. ^ Levin 1988, pp. 131–51.
  71. ^ Pinkus 1988, p. 65.
  72. ^ Jews, encyclopediaofukraine.com
  73. ^ Problems of Communism May–June 1973, 10–11.
  74. ^ Rothenberg 1970, pp. 177–78.
  75. ^ Pinkus 1988, p. 57.
  76. ^ Medvedev, R. (ed.). "Losses Suffered by the Population of the USSR, 1918–1958". The Samizdat Register.
  77. ^ Khiterer, V. (2020). The Holodomor and Jews in Kyiv and Ukraine: An Introduction and Observations on a Neglected Topic. Nationalities Papers, 48(3), 460-475. doi:10.1017/nps.2018.79
  78. ^ Dmytryshyn 1965, pp. 210–14.
  79. ^ Rothenberg 1970, pp. 180.
  80. ^ Altshuler 1993, p. 85.
  81. ^ Soviet Jewish Affairs Summer 1991, 53–54.
  82. ^ Baron 1976, p. 294.
  83. ^ Gitelman 1993, p. 4.
  84. ^ Сергійчук, В. Український Крим К. 2001, p. 150
  85. ^ Петлюра С. Статті, листи, документи – Н. Й. 1979 – Vol 2, p. 428
  86. ^ Margolin A. "The New Palestine", December 1926 also Тризуб, 1927 ч. 14 p. 13-14
  87. ^ Mykola Vladzimirsky. "Віктор Даниленко Проекти Єврейської Автономії В Радянському Криму". Ukrlife.org. Retrieved 16 April 2013.
  88. ^ "Демоскоп Weekly - Приложение. Справочник статистических показателей". www.demoscope.ru. Retrieved 24 May 2019.
  89. ^ Smith, Stephen A., ed. (16 December 2013). "The Oxford Handbook of the History of Communism". Oxford Handbooks Online: 245–. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199602056.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-960205-6.
  90. ^ Richard, J. Evans (19 March 2009). The Third Reich at War: 1939-1945. Penguin Books. pp. 203–223. ISBN 978-1-101-02230-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  91. ^ Arad, Yitzhak (27 May 2020). The Holocaust in the Soviet Union. U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 9781496210791.
  92. ^ Yivoencyclopedia.org. Retrieved on 2013-04-14.
  93. ^ "Jews in Ukraine 1897 and 1900".
  94. ^ "Jews in Ukraine 1926 and 1933".
  95. ^ Greg Dawson (2012). Judgment Before Nuremberg: The Holocaust in the Ukraine and the First Nazi. Open Road Media. ISBN 9781453226339. Retrieved 16 April 2013.
  96. ^ "Приложение Демоскопа Weekly". Demoscope.ru. 15 January 2013. Archived from the original on 12 October 2013. Retrieved 14 April 2013.
  97. ^ "World Jewish Population, 2002" (PDF). www.ajcarchives.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  98. ^ "Powered by Google Docs". Retrieved 14 April 2013.
  99. ^ YIVO | Population and Migration: Population since World War I. Yivoencyclopedia.org. Retrieved on 2013-04-14.
  100. ^ American Jewish Year Book 2012. Springer Publishing. 2012. p. 225. ISBN 9789400752047.
  101. ^ a b "Ukraine". European Jewish Congress. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  102. ^ "Studio visit : Klone | Documenting the real and unreal". The Bubblist. 15 June 2013. Retrieved 24 May 2019.
  103. ^ "Динамика численности еврейского населения Украины". www.demoscope.ru. Retrieved 24 May 2019.
  104. ^ "The Virtual Jewish History Tour – Ukraine". Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 16 April 2013.
  105. ^ a b Stewart, Susan (1994). Demonen aan de Dnipr: de moeizame staatsvorming van Oekraïne (PDF) (in Dutch). Instituut voor Publiek en Politiek. p. 84. ISBN 978-90-6473-295-9. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Author bio Archived 21 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  106. ^ a b c Stephen Roth Institute; League, Bnai Brith Anti-defamation. Anti-Semitism Worl Wide. Ramot Publishing. p. 150.
  107. ^ Rabinovich rallies his supporters, Kyiv Post (8 April 1999)
  108. ^ About number and composition population of UKRAINE by data All-Ukrainian population census'2001 data Archived 17 December 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Ukrainian Census (2001)
  109. ^ "Ukraine President Orders Return of 700 Torah Scrolls Confiscated by Communist Government", Religious Information Service of Ukraine News, November 2007.
  110. ^ "RISU /English /News /Ukrainian Jewish Committee Established to Address Jewish Issues in Ukraine". archive.is. 8 September 2012. Archived from the original on 8 September 2012. Retrieved 24 May 2019.
  111. ^ a b "Ukraine election: President Yanukovych party claims win". BBC News. 29 October 2012. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  112. ^ a b c "Extreme Choices: Svoboda plays nationalist card - Oct. 18, 2012". KyivPost. 18 October 2012. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  113. ^ a b "2012 Top Ten Anti-Israel/Anti-Semitic Slurs:Mainstream Anti-Semitism Threatens World Peace". Archived from the original on 21 December 2013. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  114. ^ Winer, Stuart. "Ukraine okays 'zhyd' slur for Jews". www.timesofisrael.com. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  115. ^ a b "Svoboda: The rise of Ukraine's ultra-nationalists". BBC News. 26 December 2012. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  116. ^ a b "Svoboda: The Rising Spectre Of Neo-Nazism In The Ukraine". International Business Times. 27 December 2012. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  117. ^ "Results of the vote count - Nov. 09, 2012". KyivPost. 9 November 2012. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  118. ^ "Party of Regions gets 185 seats in Ukrainian parliament, Batkivschyna 101 - CEC". Interfax-Ukraine. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  119. ^ "Experts weigh in on rise of Ukrainian Svoboda party | JPost | Israel News". Archived from the original on 27 April 2013.
  120. ^ Winer, Stuart. Ukraine okays 'zhyd' slur for Jews, The Times of Israel, 19 December 2012.
  121. ^ "Svoboda promoting hatred in Ukraine - Feb. 14, 2013". KyivPost. 14 February 2013. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  122. ^ "Ukrinform - Ukrainian National News Agency". www.ukrinform.net. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  123. ^ Oleh Tyahnybok: "The three opposition parties should not be required to act completely in sync", The Ukrainian Week (31 March 2013)
  124. ^ "Svoboda". Kyiv Post. 25 September 2011. Retrieved 25 September 2011.
  125. ^ "Ukrainian party picks xenophobic candidate". Archived from the original on 9 June 2012. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  126. ^ "Tiahnybok denies anti-Semitism in Svoboda - Dec. 27, 2012". KyivPost. 27 December 2012. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  127. ^ Herszenhorn, David M. (9 November 2012). "Ukraine's Ultranationalists Show Surprising Strength at Polls". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  128. ^ "Ukraine party attempts to lose anti-Semitic image". The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com. 21 January 2013. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  129. ^ "Anti-Semitism in Ukraine in 2010" (PDF). Human Rights Watch. 7 October 2010.
  130. ^ "Ukraine crisis: Timeline". BBC News. 13 November 2014. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  131. ^ a b c "Antisemitic flyer 'by Donetsk People's Republic' in Ukraine a hoax". the Guardian. 18 April 2014. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  132. ^ Dorell, Oren. "Leaflet tells Jews to register in East Ukraine". USA TODAY. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  133. ^ Donetsk leaflet: Jews must register or face deportation, antisemitism.org (16 April 2014)]
  134. ^ a b "Ukrainian Jews immigrate to Israel amid growing unrest". The Times of Israel. 4 May 2014. Retrieved 12 May 2014.
  135. ^ In Dnepropetrovsk, a Stylish Passover Despite Ukraine's Rumblings, Lubavitch World Headquarters (27 April 2014)
  136. ^ 150 Jews who fled Ukraine fighting expected in Israel, Jewish Telegraphic Agency, 7 August 2014.
  137. ^ Israel rescues Ukrainian Jews stranded by fighting by Reuters (reprinted in the Jerusalem Post), 27 May 2014.
  138. ^ "Putin Gets Personal in Ukraine". Bloomberg.com. 4 March 2014. Retrieved 10 May 2022 – via www.bloomberg.com.
  139. ^ "Russia and Ukraine at war - among the Jews anyway". 27 March 2014. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  140. ^ "Hroisman elected Rada speaker". Interfax-Ukraine. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  141. ^ "The Ukrainian Crisis and the Jews: A Time for Hope or Despair?" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 August 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2014. "The Ukrainian Crisis and the Jews: A Time for Hope or Despair," Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs VIII : 2 (2014) pp 77–85.
  142. ^ Ukrainian president taps Jewish politician to be next prime minister, Jerusalem Post (14 April 2016)
  143. ^ a b Higgins, Andrew (24 April 2019). "Ukraine's Newly Elected President Is Jewish. So Is Its Prime Minister. Not All Jews There Are Pleased". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 25 April 2019. Retrieved 25 April 2019.
  144. ^ Liphshiz, Cnaan (22 April 2019). "Zelensky win makes Ukraine 1st country outside Israel with Jewish PM, president". Times of Israel. Retrieved 29 November 2024.
  145. ^ Sokol, Sam (24 April 2019). "With two Jews in the country's top jobs, what is next for Ukraine?". The Jewish Chronicle. Retrieved 29 November 2024.
  146. ^ "In Ukraine, The Escape Road Not Taken". aish.com. 27 February 2022. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  147. ^ "Jewish-Children-From-Orphanage-and-Yeshiva-Arrive-Safely-in-Romania-and-Moldova.htm Chabbad.com March 1,2022". Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  148. ^ "WATCH: Moving Havdalah With Jewish Refugees From Odessa". 6 March 2022. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  149. ^ "Rescuing 100 Jews in Ukraine on Shabbat". aish.com. 3 March 2022. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  150. ^ Gross, Judah Ari. "Hundreds of Jews fleeing Ukraine to arrive in Israel next week". www.timesofisrael.com. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  151. ^ "In time for Passover: Israeli immigration minister visits Ukraine to get Jews to Israel". Israel365 News | Latest News. Biblical Perspective. 7 April 2022. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  152. ^ Kershner, Isabel (23 March 2022). "Ukraine War Ignites Israeli Debate Over Purpose of a Jewish State". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 26 March 2022.
  153. ^ The medialine September 1,2023
  154. ^ Israel 365 News August 28,2024
  155. ^ "RISU on Jewish Communities". Archived from the original on 20 April 2005. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  156. ^ "Chabad of Dnepropetrovsk - Dnepropetrovsk, Ukraine". Chabad.org. Retrieved 1 December 2015.
  157. ^ "Ukrainian rabbis seen as 'powerful foreigners'," Jewish & Israel News
  158. ^ Shulman, Ian (15 January 2013). "World's biggest Jewish community center opens in Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine". Jewish Journal. Archived from the original on 5 March 2013. Retrieved 1 December 2016.
  159. ^ Chesler, Chaim (22 October 2012). "The Menorah Center: Largest Jewish complex in world". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 1 December 2016.
  160. ^ a b A mile in their shoes, By Moshe Gilad, RISU
  161. ^ "ראש הממשלה היהודי של המדינה המוז". 28 January 2024.
  162. ^ Bringham Young University Special Collections - Biography of Sidor Belarsky on lib.byu

Further reading

edit
edit
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to History of Judaism in Ukraine.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Ukraine&oldid=1263782874"
  NODES
Association 3
COMMUNITY 16
INTERN 9
Note 3
Project 3