Republics of the Soviet Union

Republics of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
Republics of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
Category	Federated state
Location	Soviet Union
Created by	Treaty on the Creation of the USSR
Created	30 December 1922;
Abolished by	• State Council recognition of the Baltic states' independence; • Declaration no. 142-Н;
Abolished	26 December 1991;
Number	21 (as of 1933)
Populations	Smallest: 1,565,662 (Estonian SSR); Largest: 147,386,000 (Russian SFSR)
Areas	Smallest: 29,800 km2 (11,500 sq mi) (Armenian SSR); Largest: 17,075,400 km2 (6,592,800 sq mi) (Russian SFSR)
Government	One-party socialist republics;
Subdivisions	Autonomous SSRs, oblasts, Autonomous oblasts;

The Republics of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics or the Union Republics (Russian: Сою́зные Респу́блики, romanized: Soyúznye Respúbliki) were national-based administrative units of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).^[1] The Soviet Union was formed in 1922 by a treaty between the Soviet republics of Byelorussia, Russian SFSR (RSFSR), Transcaucasian Federation, and Ukraine, by which they became its constituent republics of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Soviet Union).

For most of its history, the USSR was a one-party state led by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Key functions of the USSR were highly centralized in Moscow until its final years, despite its nominal structure as a federation of republics; the light decentralization reforms during the era of perestroika (reconstruction) and glasnost (voice-ness, as in freedom of speech) conducted by Mikhail Gorbachev as part of the Helsinki Accords are cited as one of the factors which led to the dissolution of the USSR in 1991 as result of the Cold War and the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States.

There were two very distinct types of republics in the Soviet Union:

The larger union republics, representing the main ethnic groups of the Union and with the constitutional right to secede from it.
The smaller autonomous republics, located within some of the union republics and representing ethnic minorities. Typically, in regard to governance, autonomous republics were subordinate to the union republics they were located in.

The Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic, a relic of the Soviet-Finnish War (the Winter War), became the only union republic to be deprived of its status in 1956. The decision to downgrade Karelia to an autonomous republic within the Russian SFSR was made unilaterally by the central government without consulting its population.^{[citation needed]} The official basis for downgrading the status of the republic was the changes that had occurred in the national composition of its population (about 80% of the inhabitants were Russians, Belarusians and Ukrainians), as well as the need to reduce the state apparatus, the cost of maintaining which in 1955 amounted to 19.6 million rubles.^[2]

Overview

Reverse of the 1-ruble note of the 1961 series, with the value in all the official languages of the Union Republics

Chapter 8 of the 1977 Soviet Constitution is titled as the "Soviet Union is a union state". Article 70 stated that the union was founded on principles "socialist federalism" as a result of free self-determination of nation and volunteer association of equal in rights soviet socialist republics. Article 71 listed all of 15 union republics that united into the Soviet Union.

According to Article 76 of the 1977 Soviet Constitution, a Union Republic was a sovereign Soviet socialist state that had united with other Soviet Republics in the USSR. Article 78 of the Constitution stated that the territory of the union republic cannot be changed without its agreement. Article 81 of the Constitution stated that "the sovereign rights of Union Republics shall be safeguarded by the USSR".^[3]

In the final decades of its existence, the Soviet Union officially consisted of fifteen Soviet Socialist Republics (SSRs). All of them, with the exception of the Russian SFSR (until 1990), had their own local party chapters of the All-Union Communist Party.

In 1944, amendments to the All-Union Constitution allowed for separate branches of the Red Army for each Soviet Republic. They also allowed for Republic-level commissariats for foreign affairs and defense, allowing them to be recognized as de jure independent states in international law. This allowed for two Soviet Republics, Ukraine and Byelorussia, (as well as the USSR as a whole) to join the United Nations General Assembly as founding members in 1945.^[4]^[5]^[6]

The Soviet currency Soviet ruble banknotes all included writings in national languages of all the 15 union republics.

All of the former Republics of the Union are now independent countries, with ten of them (all except the Baltic states, Georgia and Ukraine) being very loosely organized under the heading of the Commonwealth of Independent States. The Baltic states assert that their incorporation into the Soviet Union in 1940 (as the Lithuanian, Latvian, and Estonian SSRs) under the provisions of the 1939 Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact was illegal, and that they therefore remained independent countries under Soviet occupation.^[7]^[8] Their position is supported by the European Union,^[9] the European Court of Human Rights,^[10] the United Nations Human Rights Council^[11] and the United States.^[12] In contrast, the Russian government and state officials maintain that the Soviet annexation of the Baltic states was legitimate.^[13]

Constitutionally, the Soviet Union was a federation. In accordance with provisions present in its Constitution (versions adopted in 1924, 1936 and 1977), each republic retained the right to secede from the USSR. Throughout the Cold War, this right was widely considered to be meaningless; however, the corresponding Article 72 of the 1977 Constitution was used in December 1991 to effectively dissolve the Soviet Union, when Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus seceded from the Union. Although the Union was created under an initial ideological appearance of forming a supranational union, it never de facto functioned as one; an example of the ambiguity is that the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic in the 1930s officially had its own foreign minister, but that office did not exercise any true sovereignty apart from that of the union. The Constitution of the Soviet Union in its various iterations defined the union as a federation with the right of the republics to secede. This constitutional status led to the possibility of the parade of sovereignties once the republic with de facto (albeit not de jure) dominance over the other republics, the Russian one, developed a prevailing political notion asserting that it would be better off if it seceded. The de facto dominance of the Russian republic is the reason that various historians (for example, Dmitri Volkogonov and others) have asserted that the union was a unitary state in fact albeit not in law.^[14]^{: 71, 483}^[15]

In practice, the USSR was a highly centralised entity from its creation in 1922 until the mid-1980s when political forces unleashed by reforms undertaken by Mikhail Gorbachev resulted in the loosening of central control and its ultimate dissolution. Under the constitution adopted in 1936 and modified along the way until October 1977, the political foundation of the Soviet Union was formed by the Soviets (Councils) of People's Deputies. These existed at all levels of the administrative hierarchy, with the former "countries" and other regions brought into the union referred to as soviets during their time as republics^[16] and with the Soviet Union as a whole under the nominal control of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, located in Moscow within the Russian SFSR.

Along with the state administrative hierarchy, there existed a parallel structure of party organizations, which allowed the Politburo to exercise large amounts of control over the republics. State administrative organs took direction from the parallel party organs, and appointments of all party and state officials required approval of the central organs of the party.

Each republic had its own unique set of state symbols: a flag, a coat of arms, and, with the exception of Russia until 1990, an anthem. Every republic of the Soviet Union also was awarded with the Order of Lenin.

A hall in Bishkek's Soviet-era Lenin Museum decorated with the flags of Soviet Republics
Poster of the unity of the Soviet republics in the late 1930s. All republics, except Russia, are shown with their respective traditional clothes.
Poster of the unity of the Soviet republics in 1946. Note that the map also points out the Karelo-Finnish SSR capital, Petrozavodsk.

Union Republics of the Soviet Union

Map of the Union Republics from 1956 to 1991, as numbered by the Soviet Constitution: 1. Russia, 2. Ukraine, 3. Belarus, 4. Uzbekistan, 5. Kazakhstan, 6. Georgia, 7. Azerbaijan, 8. Lithuania, 9. Moldavia, 10. Latvia, 11. Kyrgyzstan, 12. Tajikistan, 13. Armenia, 14. Turkmenistan, 15. Estonia

The number of the union republics of the USSR varied from 4 to 16. From 1956 until its dissolution in 1991, the Soviet Union consisted of 15 Soviet Socialist Republics. (In 1956, the Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic, created in 1940, was absorbed into the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic.) Rather than listing the republics in alphabetical order, the republics were listed in constitutional order (which roughly corresponded to their population and economic power when the republics were formed). However, particularly by the last decades of the Soviet Union, the constitutional order did not correspond to order either by population or economic power.

Name	Capital	Official languages	Established	Joined	Sovereignty	Independence	Population (1989)	Pop. %	Area (km²) (1991)	Area %	Post-Soviet and de facto states	No.
Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic	Yerevan	Armenian, Russian	2 December 1920	30 December 1922	23 August 1990	21 September 1991	3,287,700	1.15	29,800	0.13	Armenia	13
Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic	Baku	Azerbaijani, Russian	28 April 1920	30 December 1922	23 September 1989	18 October 1991	7,037,900	2.45	86,600	0.39	Azerbaijan	7
Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic	Minsk	Byelorussian, Russian	31 July 1920	30 December 1922	27 July 1990	25 August 1991	10,151,806	3.54	207,600	0.93	Belarus	3
Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic^[a]	Tallinn	Estonian, Russian	21 July 1940^[b]	6 August 1940	16 November 1988	8 May 1990	1,565,662	0.55	45,226	0.20	Estonia	15
Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic	Tbilisi	Georgian, Russian	25 February 1921	30 December 1922	18 November 1989	9 April 1991	5,400,841	1.88	69,700	0.31	Georgia Abkhazia South Ossetia	6
Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic	Alma-Ata	Kazakh, Russian	5 December 1936		25 October 1990	16 December 1991	16,711,900	5.83	2,717,300	12.24	Kazakhstan	5
Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic	Frunze	Kirghiz, Russian	5 December 1936		15 December 1990	31 August 1991	4,257,800	1.48	198,500	0.89	Kyrgyzstan	11
Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic^[a]	Riga	Latvian, Russian	21 July 1940^[b]	5 August 1940	28 July 1989	4 May 1990	2,666,567	0.93	64,589	0.29	Latvia	10
Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic^[a]	Vilnius	Lithuanian, Russian	21 July 1940^[b]	3 August 1940	18 May 1989	11 March 1990	3,689,779	1.29	65,200	0.29	Lithuania	8
Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic	Kishinev	Moldavian, Russian	2 August 1940		23 June 1990	27 August 1991	4,337,600	1.51	33,843	0.15	Moldova Transnistria	9
Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic	Moscow	Russian	7 November 1917	30 December 1922	12 June 1990	12 December 1991	147,386,000	51.40	17,075,400	76.62	Russia	1
Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic	Dushanbe	Tajik, Russian	5 December 1929		24 August 1990	9 September 1991	5,112,000	1.78	143,100	0.64	Tajikistan	12
Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic	Ashkhabad	Turkmen, Russian	13 May 1925		27 August 1990	27 October 1991	3,522,700	1.23	488,100	2.19	Turkmenistan	14
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic	Kiev	Ukrainian, Russian	10 March 1919	30 December 1922	16 July 1990	24 August 1991	51,706,746	18.03	603,700	2.71	Ukraine	2
Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic	Tashkent	Uzbek, Russian	5 December 1924		20 June 1990	1 September 1991	19,906,000	6.94	447,400	2.01	Uzbekistan	4

Short-lived Union Republics of the Soviet Union

Emblem	Name	Capital	Titular nationality	Years of membership	Population	Area (km²)	Soviet successor
	Socialist Soviet Republic of Abkhazia^a	Sukhumi	Abkhazians	1921-1931	201,016	86,000	Abkhaz ASSR
	Bukharan People's Soviet Republic	Bukhara	Uzbeks, Tajiks, Turkmens	1920–1924	2,000,000	182,193	Uzbek SSR
	Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic	Petrozavodsk	Karelians, Finns	1940–1956	651,300 (1959)	172,400	Russian SFSR ( Karelian ASSR)
	Khorezm People's Soviet Republic	Khiva	Uzbeks, Turkmens	1920–1924	800,000	62,200	Turkmen SSR Uzbek SSR
	Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic	Tiflis	Azerbaijanis, Armenians, Georgians	1922–1936	5,861,600 (1926)	186,100	Armenian SSR Azerbaijan SSR Georgian SSR
^a Abkhazia's status in relation to the Georgian SSR as a "treaty republic" was never clear or well-defined, making its status as a separate republic disputed.

Republics not recognized by the Soviet Union

Emblem	Name	Flag	Capital	Official languages	Independence from SSR declared	Independence from USSR declared	Population	Area (km²)	Post-Soviet states
	Pridnestrovian Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic		Tiraspol	Russian, Ukrainian, Moldovan	2 September 1990	25 August 1991	680,000 (1989)	4,163 (1989)	Transnistria Moldova

Other non-union Soviet republics

Emblem	Name	Flag	Capital	Created	Defunct	Successor states	Modern states
	Far Eastern Republic		Verkhneudinsk Chita	1920	1922	Russian SFSR	Russia
	Tuvan People's Republic		Kyzyl	1921	1944	Russian SFSR ( Tuvan ASSR)	Russia

The Turkestan Soviet Federative Republic was proclaimed in 1918 but did not survive to the founding of the USSR, becoming the short-lived Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic of the RSFSR. The Crimean Soviet Socialist Republic (Soviet Socialist Republic of Taurida) was also proclaimed in 1918, but did not become a union republic and was made into an autonomous republic of the RSFSR, although the Crimean Tatars had a relative majority until the 1930s or 1940s according to censuses. When the Tuvan People's Republic joined the Soviet Union in 1944, it did not become a union republic, and was instead established as an autonomous republic of the RSFSR.

The leader of the People's Republic of Bulgaria, Todor Zhivkov, suggested in the early 1960s that the country should become a union republic, but the offer was rejected.^[20]^[21]^[22] During the Soviet–Afghan War, the Soviet Union proposed to annex Northern Afghanistan as its 16th union republic in what was to become the Afghan Soviet Socialist Republic.^[23]

Other defunct Soviet states

Ukrainian People's Republic of Soviets (1917–1918) → Ukrainian Soviet Republic (1918)
Bessarabian Soviet Socialist Republic (1919)
Socialist Soviet Republic of Lithuania and Belorussia (1919–1920)
Galician Soviet Socialist Republic (1920)
Polish Soviet Socialist Republic (1920)
East Polish Soviet Socialist Republic (1990)

Autonomous Republics of the Soviet Union

Several of the Union Republics themselves, most notably Russia, were further subdivided into Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics (ASSRs). Though administratively part of their respective Union Republics, ASSRs were also established based on ethnic/cultural lines.

According to the constitution of the USSR, in case of a union republic voting on leaving the Soviet Union, autonomous republics, autonomous oblasts and autonomous okrugs had the right, by means of a referendum, to independently resolve whether they will stay in the USSR or leave with the seceding union republic, as well as to raise the issue of their state-legal status.^[24]

Name	Years of membership	Capital	Official languages	Area (km²⁾	Soviet Socialist Republic	Post-Soviet subjects
Abkhaz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	1931–1992	Sukhumi	Abkhazian, Georgian, Russian	8,600	Georgian SSR	Abkhazia
Adjarian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	1921–1990	Batumi	Georgian, Russian	2,880	Georgian SSR	Adjara
Bashkir Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	1919–1991	Ufa	Bashkir, Russian	143,600	Russian SFSR	Bashkortostan
Buryat Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	1923–1990	Ulan-Ude	Buryat, Russian	69,857	Russian SFSR	Buryatia
Checheno-Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	1936–1944 1957–1991	Grozny	Chechen, Ingush, Russian	19,300	Russian SFSR	Chechnya Ingushetia
Chuvash Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	1925–1992	Cheboksary	Chuvash, Russian	18,300	Russian SFSR	Chuvashia
Dagestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	1921–1991	Makhachkala	Aghul, Avar, Azerbaijani, Chechen, Kumyk, Lezgian, Lak, Nogai, Tabasaran, Tat, Russian	50,300	Russian SFSR	Dagestan
Gorno-Altai Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic^{[note 1]}	1990–1991	Gorno-Altaysk	Altai, Russian^{[citation needed]}	92,600	Russian SFSR	Altai Republic
Kabardino-Balkarian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	1936–1944 1957–1991	Nalchik	Kabardian, Karachay-Balkar, Russian	12,500	Russian SFSR	Kabardino-Balkaria
Kalmyk Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	1935–1943 1958–1991	Elista	Kalmyk Oirat, Russian	76,100	Russian SFSR	Kalmykia
Karakalpak Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	1932–1991	Nukus	Karakalpak (1956-1980s), Russian	165,000	Uzbek SSR	Karakalpakstan
Karelian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	1923–1940 1956–1991	Petrozavodsk	Finnish (1956-1980s), Russian	147,000	Russian SFSR	Karelia
Komi Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	1936–1990	Syktyvkar	Komi, Russian	415,900	Russian SFSR	Komi Republic
Mari Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	1936–1990	Yoshkar-Ola	Mari (Meadow and Hill variants), Russian	23,200	Russian SFSR	Mari El
Mordovian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	1934–1990	Saransk	Erzya, Moksha, Russian	26,200	Russian SFSR	Mordovia
Nakhichevan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	1921–1990	Nakhichevan	Azerbaijani, Russian	5,500	Azerbaijan SSR	Nakhchivan
North Ossetian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	1936–1993	Ordzhonikidze	Ossetian, Russian	8,000	Russian SFSR	North Ossetia
Tatar Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	1920–1990	Kazan	Tatar, Russian	68,000	Russian SFSR	Tatarstan
Tuvan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	1961–1992	Kyzyl	Tuvan, Russian	170,500	Russian SFSR	Tuva
Udmurt Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	1934–1990	Izhevsk	Udmurt, Russian	42,100	Russian SFSR	Udmurtia
Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	1922–1991	Yakutsk	Yakut, Russian	3,083,523	Russian SFSR	Sakha Republic

Former Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics of the Soviet Union

Name	Capital	Titular nationality	Years of membership	Population	Area (km²)	Soviet Socialist Republic	Post-Soviet states
Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	Simferopol	Crimean Tatars Russians	1921–1945 1991–1992	1,126,000 (1939)	26,860	Russian SFSR Ukrainian SSR	Ukraine Russia
Kabardin Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	Nalchik	Kabardians	1944–1957	420,115 (1959)	12,470	Russian SFSR	Russia
Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic	Alma-Ata	Kazakhs	1920–1925	6,503,000 (1926)	2,960,000	Russian SFSR	Kazakhstan Uzbekistan Russia
Kazakh Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic	Alma-Ata	Kazakhs	1925–1936	6,503,000 (1926)	2,960,000	Russian SFSR	Kazakhstan Uzbekistan Russia
Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic	Frunze	Kyrgyz	1926–1936	993,000 (1926)	196,129	Russian SFSR	Kyrgyzstan
Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	Tiraspol	Moldovans	1924–1940	599,150 (1939)	8,288	Ukrainian SSR	Transnistria Moldova Ukraine
Mountain Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	Vladikavkaz	Balkars, Chechens, Ingush, Kabardians, Karachays, Ossetians, Terek Cossacks	1921–1924	1,286,000 (1921)	74,000	Russian SFSR	Russia
Tajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	Dushanbe	Tajiks	1924–1929	740,000 (1924)		Uzbek SSR	Tajikistan
Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	Tashkent	Uzbeks, Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, Tajiks, Turkmens	1918–1924	5,221,963 (1920)		Russian SFSR	Kazakhstan Uzbekistan Turkmenistan Tajikistan Kyrgyzstan
Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	Engels	Soviet Germans	1923–1941	606,532 (1939)	27,400	Russian SFSR	Russia

Dissolution of the Soviet Union

Starting in the late 1980s, under the rule of Mikhail Gorbachev, the Soviet government undertook a program of political reforms (glasnost and perestroika) intended to liberalise and revitalise the Union. These measures, however, had a number of unintended political and social effects. Political liberalisation allowed the governments of the union republics to openly invoke the principles of democracy and nationalism to gain legitimacy. In addition, the loosening of political restrictions led to fractures within the Communist Party which resulted in a reduced ability to govern the Union effectively. The rise of nationalist and right-wing movements, notably led by Boris Yeltsin in Russia, in the previously homogeneous political system undermined the Union's foundations. With the central role of the Communist Party removed from the constitution, the Party lost its control over the State machinery and was banned from operating after an attempted coup d'état.

Throughout this period of turmoil, the Soviet government attempted to find a new structure that would reflect the increased authority of the republics. Some autonomous republics, like Tatarstan, Checheno-Ingushetia, Abkhazia, South Ossetia, Crimea, Transnistria, Gagauzia sought the union statute in the New Union Treaty. Efforts to found a New Union Treaty, however, proved unsuccessful and the republics began to secede from the Union. By 6 September 1991, the Soviet Union's State Council recognized the independence of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania bringing the number of union republics down to 12. On 8 December 1991, the remaining leaders of the republics signed the Belavezha Accords which agreed that the USSR would be dissolved and replaced with a Commonwealth of Independent States. On 25 December, President Gorbachev announced his resignation and turned all executive powers over to Yeltsin. The next day the Council of Republics voted to dissolve the Union. Since then, the republics have been governed independently with some reconstituting themselves as liberal parliamentary republics and others, particularly in Central Asia, devolving into highly autocratic states under the leadership of the old Party elite.

Notes

^ ^a ^b ^c The annexation of the Baltic republics in 1940 is considered an illegal occupation by the current Baltic governments and by a number of foreign countries.^[7]^[10]^[11]^[12]^[17]^[18]^[19] The Soviet Union considered the initial annexation legal, but officially recognized their independence on 6 September 1991, three months prior to its final dissolution
^ ^a ^b ^c Not internationally recognized, independent republic continued de jure.

^ Known as Oyrot Autonomous Oblast in 1922-1948 and Gorno-Altai Autonomous Oblast in 1948-1990.

References

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^ Карелия во второй половине 1940-х — в 1960-е (Karelia in the second half of 1940s - 1960s) (in Russian)
^ Federalism and the Dictatorship of Power in Russia By Mikhail Stoliarov. Taylor & Francis. 2014. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-415-30153-4. Retrieved 18 February 2014.
^ "Walter Duranty Explains Changes In Soviet Constitution". Miami News. 6 February 1944. Retrieved 18 February 2014.^{[permanent dead link‍]}
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^ "Estonia says Soviet occupation justifies it staying away from Moscow celebrations". Pravda.Ru. 3 May 2005. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007.
^ Motion for a resolution on the Situation in Estonia by the EU
^ ^a ^b European Court of Human Rights cases on Occupation of Baltic States
^ ^a ^b "UNITED NATIONS Human Rights Council Report". Ap.ohchr.org. Retrieved 18 February 2014.
^ ^a ^b "U.S.-Baltic Relations: Celebrating 85 Years of Friendship" (PDF). U.S. Department of State. 14 June 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 August 2012. Retrieved 29 July 2009.
^ Russia denies Baltic 'occupation' by BBC News
^ Volkogonov, Dmitri Antonovich (1998). Autopsy for an Empire: the Seven Leaders who Built the Soviet Regime. New York: Free Press/Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9780684834207.
^ Butler, William E.; Kahn, Jeffrey (May 2002). "Federalism or Federationism. A book review of: Federalism, Democratization and the Rule of Law in Russia by Jeffrey Kahn". Michigan Law Review. 100 (6): 1444–1452. doi:10.2307/1290449. JSTOR 1290449.
^ Black, Jeremy; Brewer, Paul; Shaw, Anthony; Chandler, Malcolm; Cheshire, Gerard; Cranfield, Ingrid; Ralph Lewis, Brenda; Sutherland, Joe; Vint, Robert (2003). World History. Bath, Somerset: Parragon Books. p. 343. ISBN 0-75258-227-5.
^ European parliament: Resolution on the situation in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania (No C 42/78) (1983). Official Journal of the European Communities. European Parliament.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^ Aust, Anthony (2005). Handbook of International Law. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-53034-7.
^ Ziemele, Ineta (2005). State Continuity and Nationality: The Baltic States and Russia. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 90-04-14295-9.
^ Elster, Jon (1996). The roundtable talks and the breakdown of communism. University of Chicago Press. p. 179. ISBN 0-226-20628-9.
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^ Gökay, Bülent (2001). Eastern Europe since 1970. Longman. p. 19. ISBN 0-582-32858-6.
^ Soviets may be poised to annex the Afghan North - Chicago Tribune. 19 August 1984. Retrieved on 10 December 2016. "Miraki said then-Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev urged Afghan President Babrak Karmal to win Afghan Communist Party approval for Moscow's annexation of eight northern provinces and their formation into the 16th Soviet republic, the Socialist Republic of Afghanistan. The defector said Brezhnev envisioned the southern half of the country as a powerless, Pa-than-speaking buffer with U.S.-backed Pakistan."
^ "СОЮЗ СОВЕТСКИХ СОЦИАЛИСТИЧЕСКИХ РЕСПУБЛИК. ЗАКОН О порядке решения вопросов, связанных с выходом союзной республики из СССР" (in Russian). Archived from the original on 12 September 2016. Retrieved 13 June 2022.