The voiced alveolar, dental and postalveolar plosives (or stops) are types of consonantal sounds used in many spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents voiced dental, alveolar, and postalveolar plosives is ⟨d⟩ (although the symbol ⟨d̪⟩ can be used to distinguish the dental plosive, and ⟨d̠⟩ the postalveolar), and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is d.
| Voiced alveolar plosive | |
|---|---|
| d | |
| IPA number | 104 |
| Audio sample | |
| Encoding | |
| Entity (decimal) | d |
| Unicode (hex) | U+0064 |
| X-SAMPA | d |
| Braille |  |
| Voiced dental plosive | |
|---|---|
| d̪ | |
| IPA number | 104 408 |
| Audio sample | |
| Encoding | |
| Entity (decimal) | d̪ |
| Unicode (hex) | U+0064 U+032A |
| X-SAMPA | d_d |
| Braille |   |
There are only a few languages that distinguish dental and alveolar stops, among them Kota, Toda, Venda and some Irish dialects.
Features
editFeatures of the voiced alveolar stop:
- Its manner of articulation is occlusive, which means it is produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract. Since the consonant is also oral, with no nasal outlet, the airflow is blocked entirely, and the consonant is a plosive.
- There are three specific variants of [d]:
- Dental, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the upper teeth, termed respectively apical and laminal.
- Denti-alveolar, which means it is articulated with the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, and the tip of the tongue behind upper teeth.
- Alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal.
- Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation.
- It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.
- It is a central consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
- Its airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles, as in most sounds.
Varieties
edit| IPA | Description |
|---|---|
| d | plain d |
| d̪ | dental d |
| d̠ | postalveolar d |
| dʱ | breathy d |
| dʲ | palatalized d |
| dʷ | labialized d |
| d̚ | d with no audible release |
| d̥ | voiceless d |
| d͈ | tense d |
Occurrence
editDental or denti-alveolar
edit| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Albanian | derë | [dɛːɾ] | 'door' | ||||
| Arabic | Egyptian | دنيا / donya | [ˈdonjæ] | 'world' | See Egyptian Arabic phonology | ||
| Armenian | Eastern[1] | դեմք / demk’ | 'face' | Laminal denti-alveolar. | |||
| Western | տալ / dal | [d̪ɑl] | 'to give' | Laminal denti-alveolar. | |||
| Bashkir | дүрт / dürt | 'four' | |||||
| Basque | diru | [d̪iɾu] | 'money' | Laminal denti-alveolar. | |||
| Belarusian[2] | падарожжа/padarožža | [päd̪äˈroʐːä] | 'travel' | Laminal denti-alveolar. See Belarusian phonology | |||
| Bengali | দুধ/dūdh | [d̪ud̪ʱ] | 'milk' | Laminal denti-alveolar. Contrasts aspirated and unaspirated forms. See Bengali phonology | |||
| Catalan[3] | drac | [ˈd̪ɾɑk] | 'dragon' | Laminal denti-alveolar. See Catalan phonology | |||
| Dinka[4] | dhek | [d̪ek] | 'distinct' | Laminal denti-alveolar. Contrasts with alveolar /d/. | |||
| Dhivehi | ދެރަ/Dhera | [d̪eɾa] | 'sad' | Laminal denti-alveolar. | |||
| Dutch | Belgian | ding | [d̪ɪŋ] | 'thing' | Laminal denti-alveolar. | ||
| English | Dublin[5] | then | [d̪ɛn] | 'then' | Laminal denti-alveolar. | Corresponds to [ð] in other dialects. In Dublin it may be [d͡ð].[5] | See English phonology |
| Southern Irish[6] | |||||||
| Geordie[7] | Word-initial allophone of /ð/; may be realized as [ð] instead.[7] | ||||||
| Ulster[8] | dream | [d̪ɹim] | 'dream' | Allophone of /d/ before /r/, in free variation with an alveolar stop. | |||
| Esperanto | mondo | [ˈmondo] | 'world' | See Esperanto phonology. | |||
| French[9] | dais | [d̪ɛ] | 'canopy' | Laminal denti-alveolar. See French phonology | |||
| Georgian[10] | კუდი | [ˈkʼud̪i] | 'tail' | Laminal denti-alveolar. See Georgian phonology | |||
| Hindustani[11] | Hindi | दूध / dūdh | [d̪uːd̪ʱ] | 'milk' | Laminal denti-alveolar. Hindustani contrasts aspirated and unaspirated forms. | Contrasts with aspirated form <ध>. | See Hindi-Urdu phonology |
| Urdu | دودھ / dūdh | Contrasts with aspirated form <دھ>. | |||||
| Irish | dorcha | [ˈd̪ˠɔɾˠəxə] | 'dark' | Laminal denti-alveolar. See Irish phonology | |||
| Italian[12] | dare | [ˈd̪äːre] | 'to give' | Laminal denti-alveolar. See Italian phonology | |||
| Japanese[13] | 男性的 / danseiteki | [d̪ä̃ɰ̃se̞ːt̪e̞kʲi] | 'masculine' | Laminal denti-alveolar. See Japanese phonology | |||
| Kashubian[14] | [example needed] | Laminal denti-alveolar. | |||||
| Kazakh | дос | [d̪os̪] | 'friend' | Laminal denti-alveolar. | |||
| Kyrgyz[15] | дос | [d̪os̪] | 'friend' | Laminal denti-alveolar. | |||
| Latvian[16] | drudzis | [ˈd̪rud̪͡z̪is̪] | 'fever' | Laminal denti-alveolar. See Latvian phonology | |||
| Marathi | दगड/dagaḍ | [d̪əɡəɖ] | 'stone' | Laminal denti-alveolar. Marathi contrasts aspirated and unaspirated forms. See Marathi phonology | |||
| Nepali | दिन/din | [d̪in] | 'daytime' | Contrasts with aspirated form. See Nepali Phonology | |||
| Odia | ଦଶ/daśa | [d̪ɔsɔ] | 'ten' | Laminal denti-alveolar. Contrasts aspirated and unaspirated forms. | |||
| Pashto | ﺪﻮﻩ/dwa | [ˈd̪wɑ] | 'two' | Laminal denti-alveolar. | |||
| Polish[17] | dom | 'home' | Laminal denti-alveolar. See Polish phonology | ||||
| Portuguese[18] | Many dialects | dar | [ˈd̪aɾ] | 'to give' | Laminal denti-alveolar. May palatalize or lenite in certain environments, depending on dialect. See Portuguese phonology | ||
| Punjabi | Gurmukhi | ਦਾਲ/dāl | [d̪ɑːl] | 'lentils' | Laminal denti-alveolar. | ||
| Shahmukhi | دال/dāl | ||||||
| Russian[19] | два/dva | [ˈd̪va] | 'two' | Laminal denti-alveolar, contrasts with a palatalized alveolar variant. See Russian phonology | |||
| Serbo-Croatian[20] | дуга / duga | [d̪ǔːgä] | 'rainbow' | Laminal denti-alveolar. See Serbo-Croatian phonology | |||
| Sinhala | දවස | [d̪aʋəsə] | 'day' | ||||
| Slovene[21] | danes | [ˈd̪àːnə́s̪] | 'today' | Laminal denti-alveolar. See Slovene phonology | |||
| Spanish[22] | hundido | [ũn̪ˈd̪ið̞o̞] | 'sunken' | Laminal denti-alveolar. See Spanish phonology | |||
| Telugu | దయ | [d̪aja] | 'Kindness' | Laminal denti-alveolar. Contrasts aspirated and unaspirated forms. Aspirated form articulated as breathy consonant. | |||
| Turkish | dal | [d̪äɫ] | 'twig' | Laminal denti-alveolar. See Turkish phonology | |||
| Ukrainian[23][24] | дерево/derevo | [ˈd̪ɛrɛβ̞ɔ] | 'tree' | Laminal denti-alveolar. See Ukrainian phonology | |||
| Uzbek[25] | sifatida | [siɸætidæ] | 'as' | Laminal denti-alveolar. | |||
| Wu | 唐/da | [d̪ɑ̃] | 'the Tang dynasty' | ||||
| Zapotec | Tilquiapan[26] | dan | [d̪aŋ] | 'countryside' | Laminal denti-alveolar. | ||
Alveolar
edit| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Adyghe | дахэ/daahė | [daːxa] | 'pretty' | ||||
| Assyrian | ܘܪܕܐ [[[Syriac alphabet|werda]]] Error: {{Lang}}: Latn text/non-Latn script subtag mismatch (help) | [wεrda] | 'flower' | Predominant in the Urmia, Jilu, Baz, Gawar and Nochiya dialects. Corresponds to [ð̞] in other varieties. | |||
| Bengali | ডাব/ḍab | [d̠ab] | 'green coconut' | True alveolar in eastern dialects, apical post-alveolar in western dialects. Usually transcribed in IPA as [ɖ]. See Bengali phonology. | |||
| Catalan[27] | susdit | [sʊzˈd̻it̪] | 'said before' | Laminal alveolar. See Catalan phonology | |||
| Czech | do | [do] | 'into' | See Czech phonology | |||
| Dutch[28] | dak | [dɑk] | 'roof' | See Dutch phonology | |||
| English | Most speakers | dash | [ˈdæʃ] | 'dash' | See English phonology | ||
| Finnish | sidos | [ˈsido̞s] | 'bond' | See Finnish phonology | |||
| Greek | ντροπή / dropí | [dro̞ˈpi] | 'shame' | See Modern Greek phonology | |||
| Hebrew | דואר/ do'ar | [ˈdo̞.äʁ̞] | 'mail' | See Modern Hebrew phonology | |||
| Hungarian | adó | [ˈɒdoː] | 'tax' | See Hungarian phonology | |||
| Kabardian | дахэ/ daahė | [daːxa] | 'pretty' | ||||
| Khmer | ដប / dab | [dɑp] | 'bottle' | ||||
| Korean | 아들 / adeul | [ɐdɯl] | 'son' | See Korean phonology | |||
| Kurdish | Northern | diran | [dɪɾä:n] | 'tooth' | See Kurdish phonology | ||
| Central | ددان/ dadân | [dædä:n] | |||||
| Southern | دیان/dîân | [diːä:n] | |||||
| Luxembourgish[29] | brudder | [ˈb̥ʀudɐ] | 'brother' | More often voiceless [t].[29] See Luxembourgish phonology | |||
| Malay | Standard (incl. Malaysian) | dahan | [dähän] | 'branch' | See Malay phonology | ||
| Indonesian[30] | |||||||
| Kelantan-Pattani | [dahɛː] | See Kelantan-Pattani Malay | |||||
| Maltese | dehen | [den] | 'wit' | ||||
| Tagalog | dalaga | [dɐˈlaɰɐ] | 'maiden' | See Tagalog phonology | |||
| Thai | ดาว/ dāw | [daːw] | 'star' | ||||
| Welsh | diafol | [djavɔl] | 'devil' | See Welsh phonology | |||
| West Frisian | doarp | [ˈdwɑrp] | 'village' | ||||
| Yi | ꄿ/dda | [da˧] | 'competent' | ||||
| Yonaguni | 与那国 / dunan | [dunaŋ] | 'Yonaguni' | ||||
Variable
edit| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Arabic | دين/diin | [diːn] | 'religion' | Laminal denti-alveolar or alveolar, depending on the dialect. See Arabic phonology. | |
| English | Broad South African[31] | dawn | [doːn] | 'dawn' | Laminal denti-alveolar for some speakers, alveolar for other speakers.[31][32][33] |
| Scottish[32] | [dɔn] | ||||
| Welsh[33] | [dɒːn] | ||||
| German | Standard[34] | oder | 'or' | Varies between laminal denti-alveolar, laminal alveolar and apical alveolar.[34] See Standard German phonology | |
| Norwegian | Urban East[35] | dans | [d̻ɑns] | 'dance' | Partially voiced or fully voiceless [t]. Varies between laminal denti-alveolar and laminal alveolar.[35] See Norwegian phonology |
| Persian[36] | اداره/edāre | [edaːre] | 'office' | Varies between laminal denti-alveolar and apical alveolar.[36] See Persian phonology | |
| Slovak[37][38] | do | 'into' | Varies between laminal denti-alveolar and laminal alveolar.[37][38] See Slovak phonology | ||
| Swedish | Central Standard[39] | dag | [dɑːɡ] | 'day' | Varies between laminal denti-alveolar and alveolar, with the former being predominant.[39] May be an approximant in casual speech. See Swedish phonology |
See also
editNotes
edit- ^ Dum-Tragut (2009), p. 13.
- ^ Padluzhny (1989), p. 47.
- ^ Carbonell & Llisterri (1992), p. 53.
- ^ Remijsen & Manyang (2009), pp. 115, 121.
- ^ a b Collins & Mees (2003), p. 302.
- ^ Roca & Johnson (1999), p. 24.
- ^ a b Watt & Allen (2003), p. 270.
- ^ "Week 18 (ii). Northern Ireland" (PDF). UCL Phonetics and Linguistics. Archived (PDF) from the original on Nov 7, 2022.
- ^ Fougeron & Smith (1993), p. 73.
- ^ Shosted & Chikovani (2006), p. 255.
- ^ Ladefoged (2005), p. 141.
- ^ Rogers & d'Arcangeli (2004), p. 117.
- ^ Okada (1999), p. 117.
- ^ Treder, Jerzy. "Fonetyka i fonologia". Rastko.net. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04.
- ^ Kara (2003), p. 11.
- ^ Nau (1998), p. 6.
- ^ Jassem (2003), p. 103.
- ^ Cruz-Ferreira (1995), p. 91.
- ^ Jones & Ward (1969), p. 99.
- ^ Landau et al. (1999), p. 66.
- ^ Pretnar & Tokarz (1980), p. 21.
- ^ Martínez-Celdrán, Fernández-Planas & Carrera-Sabaté (2003), p. 255.
- ^ S. Buk; J. Mačutek; A. Rovenchak (2008). "Some properties of the Ukrainian writing system". Glottometrics. 16: 63–79. arXiv:0802.4198.
- ^ Danyenko & Vakulenko (1995), p. 4.
- ^ Sjoberg (1963), p. 10.
- ^ Merrill (2008), p. 108.
- ^ Rafel Fontanals (1999), p. 14.
- ^ Gussenhoven (1992), p. 45.
- ^ a b Gilles & Trouvain (2013), pp. 67–68.
- ^ Soderberg & Olson (2008), p. 210.
- ^ a b Lass (2002), p. 120.
- ^ a b Scobbie, Gordeeva & Matthews (2006), p. 4.
- ^ a b Wells (1982), p. 388.
- ^ a b Mangold (2005), p. 47.
- ^ a b Kristoffersen (2000:22)
- ^ a b Mahootian (2002:287–289)
- ^ a b Kráľ (1988), p. 72.
- ^ a b Pavlík (2004), pp. 98–99.
- ^ a b Riad (2014:46)
References
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{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - Sjoberg, Andrée F. (1963), Uzbek Structural Grammar, Uralic and Altaic Series, vol. 18, Bloomington: Indiana University
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