The close front rounded vowel, or high front rounded vowel,[1] is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨y⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is y. Across many languages, it is most commonly represented orthographically as ⟨ü⟩ (in German, Turkish, Estonian and Hungarian) or ⟨y⟩ (in Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, Finnish and Albanian) but also as ⟨u⟩ (in French and Dutch and the Kernewek Kemmyn standard of Cornish); ⟨iu⟩/⟨yu⟩ (in the romanization of various Asian languages); ⟨уь⟩ (in Cyrillic-based writing systems such as that for Chechen); or ⟨ү⟩ (in Cyrillic-based writing systems such as that for Tatar).
| Close front rounded vowel | |
|---|---|
| y | |
| IPA number | 309 |
| Audio sample | |
| Encoding | |
| Entity (decimal) | y |
| Unicode (hex) | U+0079 |
| X-SAMPA | y |
| Braille |  |
| IPA: Vowels | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
Legend: unrounded • rounded |
Short /y/ and long /yː/ occurred in pre-Modern Greek. In the Attic and Ionic dialects of Ancient Greek, front [y yː] developed by fronting from back /u uː/ around the 6th to 7th century BC. A little later, the diphthong /yi/ when not before another vowel monophthongized and merged with long /yː/. In Koine Greek, the diphthong /oi/ changed to [yː], likely through the intermediate stages [øi] and [øː]. Through vowel shortening in Koine Greek, long /yː/ merged with short /y/. Later, /y/ unrounded to [i], yielding the pronunciation of Modern Greek. For more information, see the articles on Ancient Greek and Koine Greek phonology.
The close front rounded vowel is the vocalic equivalent of the labialized palatal approximant [ɥ]. [y] alternates with [ɥ] in certain languages, such as French, and in the diphthongs of some languages, ⟨y̑⟩ with the non-syllabic diacritic and ⟨ɥ⟩ are used in different transcription systems to represent the same sound.
In most languages, this rounded vowel is pronounced with compressed lips ('exolabial'). However, in a few cases the lips are protruded ('endolabial').
Close front compressed vowel
editThe close front compressed vowel is typically transcribed in IPA simply as ⟨y⟩, and that is the convention used in this article. There is no dedicated diacritic for compression in the IPA. However, the compression of the lips can be shown with the letter ⟨β̞⟩ as ⟨i͡β̞⟩ (simultaneous [i] and labial compression) or ⟨iᵝ⟩ ([i] modified with labial compression). The spread-lip diacritic ⟨ ͍ ⟩ may also be used with a rounded vowel letter ⟨y͍⟩ as an ad hoc symbol, though technically 'spread' means unrounded.
Features
edit- Its vowel height is close, also known as high, which means the tongue is positioned close to the roof of the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant.
- Its vowel backness is front, which means the tongue is positioned forward in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant. Rounded front vowels are often centralized, which means that often they are in fact near-front.
- Its roundedness is compressed, which means that the margins of the lips are tense and drawn together in such a way that the inner surfaces are not exposed.
Occurrence
editBecause front rounded vowels are assumed to have compression, and few descriptions cover the distinction, some of the following may actually have protrusion.
| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Afrikaans | Standard[2] | u | [y] | 'you' (formal) | Merges with /i/ in younger speakers. See Afrikaans phonology |
| Albanian | Standard | ylber | [ylbɛɾ] | 'rainbow' | Merges with /i/ in many dialects. See Albanian phonology |
| Azerbaijani[3] | güllə | [ɟylˈlæ] | 'bullet' | ||
| Bavarian | Amstetten dialect[4] | [example needed] | Contrasts close [y], near-close [ø̝], close-mid [ø] and open-mid [œ] front rounded vowels in addition to the open central unrounded [ä].[4] | ||
| Breton[5] | brud | [bʁyːt̪] | 'noise' | ||
| Catalan | Northern[6] | but | [ˈbyt] | 'aim' | Found in Occitan and French loanwords. See Catalan phonology |
| Chechen | уьйтӏе / üythe | [yːtʼje] | 'yard' | ||
| Chinese | Mandarin[7][8] | 女 / nǚ | 'woman' | See Standard Chinese phonology and Cantonese phonology | |
| Cantonese[9] | 書 / syū | 'book' | |||
| Shanghainese[10] | 驢 | [ly˧] | 'donkey' | ||
| Chuvash | тӳме | [tyme] | 'button' | ||
| Danish | Standard[11][12] | synlig | [ˈsyːnli] | 'visible' | See Danish phonology |
| Dutch | Standard[13][14] | nu | [ny] | 'now' | Also described as near-close [y˕].[15] The Standard Northern realization has also been described as close central [ʉ].[16] See Dutch phonology |
| English | General South African[17] | few | [fjyː] | 'few' | Some younger speakers, especially females. Others pronounce a more central vowel [ʉː].[17] See South African English phonology |
| Multicultural London[18] | May be back [uː] instead.[18] | ||||
| Scouse[19] | May be central [ʉː] instead. | ||||
| Ulster[20] | Long allophone of /u/; occurs only after /j/.[20] See English phonology | ||||
| Estonian[21] | üks | [ˈyks] | 'one' | See Estonian phonology | |
| Faroese[22] | mytisk | [ˈmyːtɪsk] | 'mythological' | Appears only in loanwords.[23] See Faroese phonology | |
| Finnish[24][25] | yksi | [ˈyksi] | 'one' | See Finnish phonology | |
| French[26][27] | tu | 'you' | The Parisian realization has been also described as near-close [ʏ].[28] See French phonology | ||
| German | Standard[29][30] | über | 'over' | See Standard German phonology | |
| Many speakers[31] | schützen | [ˈʃyt͡sn̩] | 'protect' | The usual realization of /ʏ/ in Switzerland, Austria and partially also in Western and Southwestern Germany (Palatinate, Swabia).[31] See Standard German phonology | |
| Greek | Tyrnavos[32] | σάλιο / salio | [ˈsäly] | 'saliva' | Corresponds to /jo/ in Standard Modern Greek.[32] |
| Velvendos[32] | |||||
| Hungarian[33] | tű | [t̪yː] | 'pin' | See Hungarian phonology | |
| Iaai[34] | ûû | [yː] | 'quarrel' | ||
| Korean | 뒤 / dwi | [ty(ː)] | 'back' | Now usually a diphthong [ɥi], especially in Seoul and surrounding dialects. See Korean phonology | |
| Kurdish[35][36] | Kurmanji (Northern) | kü | [kʰyːɥ] | 'mountain' | Equal to Palewani (Southern) [ʉː]. See Kurdish phonology |
| Limburgish[37][38] | zuut | [zyːt] | 'sees' | Central [ʉː] in Maastricht.[39] The example word is from the Weert dialect. | |
| Lombard[40] | Most dialects[40] | ridüü
riduu |
[riˈdyː] | 'laughed' | [40] |
| Low German[41] | für / fuur | [fyːɐ̯] | 'fire' | ||
| Luxembourgish[42] | Hüll | [hyl] | 'envelope' | Occurs only in loanwords.[42] See Luxembourgish phonology | |
| Mongolian[43] | Inner Mongolia | түймэр / tüimer | [tʰyːmɘɾɘ̆] | 'prairie fire' | Diphthong [uj] in Khalkha. |
| Norwegian[44] | syd | [syːd] | 'south' | The example word is from Urban East Norwegian, in which the vowel varies in rounding between compressed [yː] and protruded [y̫ː]. It can be diphthongized to [yə̯].[45][46] See Norwegian phonology. | |
| Occitan | Besalú | [besalyː] | 'Town of Besalú' | See Occitan phonology | |
| Plautdietsch | Canadian Old Colony[47] | buut | [byːt] | 'builds' | Corresponds to back [u] in other varieties.[47] |
| Portuguese | Azorean[48] | figura | [fiˈɣyɾə] | 'figure' | Stressed vowel, fronting of original /u/ in some dialects.[48] See Portuguese phonology |
| Algarve[49] | tudo | [ˈt̪yðu] | 'all' | ||
| Brazilian[50] | déjà vu | [d̪e̞ʒɐ ˈvy] | 'déjà vu' | Found in French and German loanwords. Speakers may instead use [u] or [i]. See Portuguese phonology | |
| Saterland Frisian[51][52] | wüül | [vyːl] | 'wanted' (v.) | ||
| Scottish Gaelic | younger Lewis speakers[53] | cù | [kʰyː] | 'dog' | Normal allophone of [uː]. More central as [ʉː] among older speakers.[54] See Scottish Gaelic phonology |
| Swedish | Central Standard[55] | ut | [yːt̪] | 'out' | Often realized as a sequence [yβ̞] or [yβ].[56][57] The height has been variously described as close [yː][55] and near-close [ʏː].[58][59] Typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨ʉː⟩; it is central [ʉː] in other dialects. See Swedish phonology |
| Turkish[60][61] | güneş | [ɟyˈn̪e̞ʃ] | 'sun' | See Turkish phonology | |
| West Frisian[62] | út | [yt] | 'out' | See West Frisian phonology | |
Close front protruded vowel
edit| Close front protruded vowel | |
|---|---|
| y̫ | |
| yʷ | |
| iʷ | |
| Audio sample | |
Catford notes[full citation needed] that most languages with rounded front and back vowels use distinct types of labialization, protruded back vowels and compressed front vowels. However, a few languages, such as Scandinavian ones, have protruded front vowels. One of these, Swedish, even contrasts the two types of rounding in front vowels (see near-close near-front rounded vowel, with Swedish examples of both types of rounding).
As there are no diacritics in the IPA to distinguish protruded and compressed rounding, an old diacritic for labialization, ⟨ ̫⟩, will be used here as an ad hoc symbol for protruded front vowels. Another possible transcription is ⟨yʷ⟩ or ⟨iʷ⟩ (a close front vowel modified by endolabialization), but this could be misread as a diphthong.
Acoustically, this sound is "between" the more typical compressed close front vowel [y] and the unrounded close front vowel [i].
Features
edit- Its vowel height is close, also known as high, which means the tongue is positioned close to the roof of the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant.
- Its vowel backness is front, which means the tongue is positioned forward in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant. Rounded front vowels are often centralized, which means that often they are in fact near-front.
- Its roundedness is protruded, which means that the corners of the lips are drawn together, and the inner surfaces exposed.
Occurrence
edit| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Kurdish[36][35] | Palewani (Southern) | کۊ | [kʰy̫ːɥ] | 'mountain' | Allophone of [ʉː] in regional dialects. See Kurdish phonology |
| Norwegian[44] | syd | [sy̫ːd] | 'south' | The example word is from Urban East Norwegian, in which the vowel varies in rounding between protruded [y̫ː] and compressed [yː]. It can be diphthongized to [y̫ə̯].[45][46] See Norwegian phonology. | |
| Swedish | Central Standard[63][64] | yla | [²y̫ːlä] | 'howl' | Often realized as a sequence [y̫ɥ̫] or [y̫ɥ̫˔][56][64] (hear the word: ); it may also be fricated [y̫ᶻː] or, in some regions, fricated and centralized ([ʉᶻː]).[65] See Swedish phonology |
See also
editNotes
edit- ^ While the International Phonetic Association prefers the terms "close" and "open" for vowel height, many linguists use "high" and "low".
- ^ Donaldson (1993), p. 2.
- ^ Mokari & Werner (2016), p. ?.
- ^ a b Traunmüller (1982), cited in Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996:290)
- ^ Ternes (1992), pp. 431, 433.
- ^ Recasens (1996), p. 69.
- ^ Lee & Zee (2003), pp. 110–111.
- ^ Duanmu (2007), pp. 35–36.
- ^ Zee (1999), pp. 59–60.
- ^ Chen & Gussenhoven (2015), p. 328.
- ^ Grønnum (1998), p. 100.
- ^ Ladefoged & Johnson (2010), p. 227.
- ^ Verhoeven (2005), p. 245.
- ^ Gussenhoven (2007), p. 30.
- ^ Collins & Mees (2003), p. 132.
- ^ Gussenhoven (1992), p. 47.
- ^ a b Lass (2002), p. 116.
- ^ a b Cruttenden (2014), p. 91.
- ^ Watson (2007), p. 357.
- ^ a b Jilka, Matthias. "Irish English and Ulster English" (PDF). Stuttgart: Institut für Linguistik/Anglistik, University of Stuttgart. p. 6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 April 2014.
- ^ Asu & Teras (2009), p. 368.
- ^ Árnason (2011), pp. 68, 74.
- ^ Árnason (2011), p. 75.
- ^ Iivonen & Harnud (2005), pp. 60, 66.
- ^ Suomi, Toivanen & Ylitalo (2008), p. 21.
- ^ Fougeron & Smith (1993), p. 73.
- ^ Lodge (2009), p. 84.
- ^ Collins & Mees (2013), p. 225.
- ^ Hall (2003), pp. 92, 107.
- ^ Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015), p. 34.
- ^ a b Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015), p. 64.
- ^ a b c Trudgill (2009), pp. 86–87.
- ^ Szende (1994), p. 92.
- ^ Maddieson & Anderson (1994), p. 164.
- ^ a b Thackston (2006a), p. 1.
- ^ a b Khan & Lescot (1970), pp. 8–16.
- ^ Heijmans & Gussenhoven (1998), p. 110.
- ^ Peters (2006), p. 119.
- ^ Gussenhoven & Aarts (1999), p. 159.
- ^ a b c Loporcaro, Michele (2015). Vowel Length from Latin to Romance. Oxford University Press. pp. 93–96. ISBN 978-0-19-965655-4.
- ^ Prehn (2012), p. 157.
- ^ a b Gilles & Trouvain (2013), p. 72.
- ^ Iivonen & Harnud (2005), pp. 62, 66–67.
- ^ a b Vanvik (1979), pp. 13, 20.
- ^ a b Vanvik (1979), p. 19.
- ^ a b Kristoffersen (2000), pp. 15–16.
- ^ a b Cox, Driedger & Tucker (2013), pp. 224–245.
- ^ a b Variação Linguística no Português Europeu: O Caso do Português dos Açores (in Portuguese)
- ^ Portuguese: A Linguistic Introduction – by Milton M. Azevedo Page 186.
- ^ (in Portuguese) The perception of German vowels by Portuguese-German bilinguals: do returned emigrants suffer phonological erosion? Pages 57 and 68.
- ^ Fort (2001), p. 411.
- ^ Peters (2017), p. ?.
- ^ Nance (2013).
- ^ "Aspiration". Scottish Gaelic Dialect Survey. Archived from the original on 2021-04-24. Retrieved 2021-04-23.
- ^ a b Riad (2014), pp. 27–28.
- ^ a b Engstrand (1999), p. 141.
- ^ Riad (2014), p. 28.
- ^ Engstrand (1999), p. 140.
- ^ Rosenqvist (2007), p. 9.
- ^ Zimmer & Orgun (1999), p. 155.
- ^ Göksel & Kerslake (2005), p. 11.
- ^ Tiersma (1999), p. 11.
- ^ Engstrand (1999), pp. 140–141.
- ^ a b Riad (2014), p. 26.
- ^ Riad (2014), p. 21.
References
edit- Árnason, Kristján (2011), The Phonology of Icelandic and Faroese, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-922931-4
- Asu, Eva Liina; Teras, Pire (2009), "Estonian", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 39 (3): 367–372, doi:10.1017/s002510030999017x
- Chen, Yiya; Gussenhoven, Carlos (2015), "Shanghai Chinese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 45 (3): 321–327, doi:10.1017/S0025100315000043
- Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2003) [First published 1981], The Phonetics of English and Dutch (5th ed.), Leiden: Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004103406
- Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2013) [First published 2003], Practical Phonetics and Phonology: A Resource Book for Students (3rd ed.), Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-50650-2
- Cox, Cristopher; Driedger, Jacob M.; Tucker, Benjamin V. (2013), "Mennonite Plautdietsch (Canadian Old Colony)", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (2): 221–229, doi:10.1017/S0025100313000121
- Cruttenden, Alan (2014), Gimson's Pronunciation of English (8th ed.), Routledge, ISBN 9781444183092
- Donaldson, Bruce C. (1993), "1. Pronunciation", A Grammar of Afrikaans, Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 1–35, ISBN 9783110134261
- Duanmu, San (2007) [First published 2000], The Phonology of Standard Chinese (2nd ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-921578-2
- Dudenredaktion; Kleiner, Stefan; Knöbl, Ralf (2015) [First published 1962], Das Aussprachewörterbuch (in German) (7th ed.), Berlin: Dudenverlag, ISBN 978-3-411-04067-4
- Engstrand, Olle (1999), "Swedish", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the usage of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 140–142, ISBN 0-521-63751-1
- Fort, Marron C. (2001), "36. Das Saterfriesische", in Munske, Horst Haider; Århammar, Hans (eds.), Handbook of Frisian studies, Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag GmbH, pp. 409–422, ISBN 3-484-73048-X
- Fougeron, Cecile; Smith, Caroline L. (1993), "French", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 23 (2): 73–76, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004874, S2CID 249404451
- Gilles, Peter; Trouvain, Jürgen (2013), "Luxembourgish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (1): 67–74, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000278
- Göksel, Asli; Kerslake, Celia (2005), Turkish: a comprehensive grammar, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415114943
- Green, W.A.I. (1990), "7 The Dialects of the Palatinate (Das Pfälzische)", in Russ, Charles (ed.), The Dialects of Modern German: A Linguistic Survey, Abingdon: Routledge, pp. 241–264, ISBN 0-415-00308-3
- Grønnum, Nina (1998), "Illustrations of the IPA: Danish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 28 (1 & 2): 99–105, doi:10.1017/s0025100300006290, S2CID 249412109
- Gussenhoven, Carlos (1992), "Dutch", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 22 (2): 45–47, doi:10.1017/S002510030000459X, S2CID 243772965
- Gussenhoven, Carlos; Aarts, Flor (1999), "The dialect of Maastricht" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 29 (2), University of Nijmegen, Centre for Language Studies: 155–166, doi:10.1017/S0025100300006526, S2CID 145782045
- Gussenhoven, Carlos (2007), Wat is de beste transcriptie voor het Nederlands? (PDF) (in Dutch), Nijmegen: Radboud University, archived (PDF) from the original on 25 March 2017
- Hall, Christopher (2003) [First published 1992], Modern German pronunciation: An introduction for speakers of English (2nd ed.), Manchester: Manchester University Press, ISBN 0-7190-6689-1
- Heijmans, Linda; Gussenhoven, Carlos (1998), "The Dutch dialect of Weert" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 28 (1–2): 107–112, doi:10.1017/S0025100300006307, S2CID 145635698
- Iivonen, Antti; Harnud, Huhe (2005), "Acoustical comparison of the monophthong systems in Finnish, Mongolian and Udmurt", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 35 (1): 59–71, doi:10.1017/S002510030500191X, S2CID 145733117
- Khan, Celadet Bedir; Lescot, Roger (1970), Grammaire Kurde (Dialecte kurmandji) (PDF), Paris: La librairie d'Amérique et d'Orient Adrien Maisonneuve, retrieved 28 October 2017
- Khan, Sameer ud Dowla; Weise, Constanze (2013), "Upper Saxon (Chemnitz dialect)" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (2): 231–241, doi:10.1017/S0025100313000145
- Kristoffersen, Gjert (2000), The Phonology of Norwegian, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-823765-5
- Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19815-6.
- Ladefoged, Peter; Johnson, Keith (2010), A Course in Phonetics (6th ed.), Boston, Massachusetts: Wadsworth Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4282-3126-9
- Lass, Roger (2002), "South African English", in Mesthrie, Rajend (ed.), Language in South Africa, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521791052
- Lee, Wai-Sum; Zee, Eric (2003), "Standard Chinese (Beijing)", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (1): 109–112, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001208
- Lodge, Ken (2009), A Critical Introduction to Phonetics, Continuum International Publishing Group, ISBN 978-0-8264-8873-2
- Maddieson, Ian; Anderson, Victoria (1994), "Phonetic Structures of Iaai" (PDF), UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics, 87: Fieldwork Studies of _targeted Languages II, Los Angeles: UCLA: 163–182
- Mokari, Payam Ghaffarvand; Werner, Stefan (2016), Dziubalska-Kolaczyk, Katarzyna (ed.), "An acoustic description of spectral and temporal characteristics of Azerbaijani vowels", Poznań Studies in Contemporary Linguistics, 52 (3), doi:10.1515/psicl-2016-0019, S2CID 151826061
- Nance, Claire (2013), Phonetic variation, sound change, and identity in Scottish Gaelic (PhD), University of Glasgow
- Peters, Jörg (2006), "The dialect of Hasselt", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 36 (1): 117–124, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002428
- Peters, Jörg (2017), "Saterland Frisian", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 49 (2): 223–230, doi:10.1017/S0025100317000226, S2CID 232348873
- Prehn, Maike (2012). Vowel quantity and the fortis-lenis distinction in North Low Saxon (PDF) (PhD). Amsterdam: LOT. ISBN 978-94-6093-077-5.
- Recasens, Daniel (1996), Fonètica descriptiva del català: assaig de caracterització de la pronúncia del vocalisme i el consonantisme català al segle XX (2nd ed.), Barcelona: Institut d'Estudis Catalans, ISBN 978-84-7283-312-8
- Riad, Tomas (2014), The Phonology of Swedish, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-954357-1
- Rosenqvist, Håkan (2007), Uttalsboken: svenskt uttal i praktik och teori, Stockholm: Natur & Kultur, ISBN 978-91-27-40645-2
- Suomi, Kari; Toivanen, Juhani; Ylitalo, Riikka (2008), Finnish sound structure – Phonetics, phonology, phonotactics and prosody (PDF), Studia Humaniora Ouluensia 9, Oulu University Press, ISBN 978-951-42-8984-2
- Szende, Tamás (1994), "Hungarian", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 24 (2): 91–94, doi:10.1017/S0025100300005090, S2CID 242632087
- Ternes, Elmar (1992), "The Breton language", in MacAulay, Donald (ed.), The Celtic Languages, Cambridge University Press, pp. 371–452, ISBN 0-521-23127-2
- Thackston, W.M. (2006a), —Sorani Kurdish— A Reference Grammar with Selected Readings (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 27 February 2021, retrieved 29 October 2017
- Tiersma, Peter Meijes (1999) [First published 1985 in Dordrecht by Foris Publications], Frisian Reference Grammar (2nd ed.), Ljouwert: Fryske Akademy, ISBN 90-6171-886-4
- Traunmüller, Hartmut (1982), "Vokalismus in der westniederösterreichischen Mundart.", Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik, 2: 289–333
- Trudgill, Peter (2009), "Greek Dialect Vowel Systems, Vowel Dispersion Theory, and Sociolinguistic Typology", Journal of Greek Linguistics, 9 (1): 80–97, doi:10.1163/156658409X12500896406041
- Vanvik, Arne (1979), Norsk fonetikk, Oslo: Universitetet i Oslo, ISBN 82-990584-0-6
- Verhoeven, Jo (2005), "Belgian Standard Dutch", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 35 (2): 243–247, doi:10.1017/S0025100305002173
- Watson, Kevin (2007), "Liverpool English" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 37 (3): 351–360, doi:10.1017/s0025100307003180
- Zee, Eric (1999), "Chinese (Hong Kong Cantonese)", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 58–60, ISBN 0-521-65236-7
- Zimmer, Karl; Orgun, Orhan (1999), "Turkish" (PDF), Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 154–158, ISBN 0-521-65236-7, archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-07-25, retrieved 2015-04-12