sympathy of England, he began active preparations for the
expedition to Marsala. At the last moment he hesitated, but
Crispi succeeded in persuading him to sail from Genoa on the
5th of May 1860 with two vessels carrying a volunteer corps of
1070 strong. Calling at Talamone to embark arms and money,
he reached Marsala on the 11th of May, and landed under the
protection of the British vessels “Intrepid” and “Argus.”
On the 12th of May the dictatorship of Garibaldi was proclaimed
at Salemi, on the 15th of May the Neapolitan troops were routed
at Calatafimi, on the 25th of May Palermo was taken, and on the
6th of June 20,000 Neapolitan regulars, supported by nine
frigates and protected by two forts, were compelled to capitulate.
Once established at Palermo, Garibaldi organized an army to
liberate Naples and march upon Rome, a plan opposed by the
emissaries of Cavour, who desired the immediate annexation of
Sicily to the Italian kingdom. Expelling Lafarina and driving
out Depretis, who represented Cavour, Garibaldi routed the
Neapolitans at Milazzo on the 20th of July. Messina fell on the
20th of July, but Garibaldi, instead of crossing to Calabria,
secretly departed for Aranci Bay in Sardinia, where Bertani was
fitting out an expedition against the papal states. Cavour,
however, obliged the expedition to sail for Palermo. Returning
to Messina, Garibaldi found a letter from Victor Emmanuel II.
dissuading him from invading the kingdom of Naples. Garibaldi
replied asking “permission to disobey.” Next day he crossed
the Strait, won the battle of Reggio on the 21st of August,
accepted the capitulation of 9000 Neapolitan troops at San
Giovanni and of 11,000 more at Soveria. The march upon
Naples became a triumphal progress, which the wiles of Francesco
II. were powerless to arrest. On the 7th of September Garibaldi
entered Naples, while Francesco fled to Gaeta. On the 1st
of October he routed the remnant of the Bourbon army 40,000
strong on the Volturno. Meanwhile the Italian troops had
occupied the Marches, Umbria and the Abruzzi, a battalion of
Bersaglieri reaching the Volturno in time to take part in the
battle. Their presence put an end to the plan for the invasion
of the papal states, and Garibaldi unwillingly issued a decree for
the plébiscite which was to sanction the incorporation of the Two
Sicilies in the Italian realm. On the 7th of November Garibaldi
accompanied Victor Emmanuel during his solemn entry into
Naples, and on the morrow returned to Caprera, after disbanding
his volunteers and recommending their enrolment in the regular
army.
Indignation at the cession of Nice to France and at the neglect of his followers by the Italian government induced him to return to political life. Elected deputy in 1861, his anger against Cavour found violent expression. Bixio attempted to reconcile them, but the publication by Cialdini of a letter against Garibaldi provoked a hostility which, but for the intervention of the king, would have led to a duel between Cialdini and Garibaldi. Returning to Caprera, Garibaldi awaited events. Cavour’s successor, Ricasoli, enrolled the Garibaldians in the regular army; Rattazzi, who succeeded Ricasoli, urged Garibaldi to undertake an expedition in aid of the Hungarians, but Garibaldi, finding his followers ill-disposed towards the idea, decided to turn his arms against Rome. On the 29th of June 1862 he landed at Palermo and gathered an army under the banner “Roma o morte.” Rattazzi, frightened at the prospect of an attack upon Rome, proclaimed a state of siege in Sicily, sent the fleet to Messina, and instructed Cialdini to oppose Garibaldi. Circumventing the Italian troops, Garibaldi entered Catania, crossed to Melito with 3000 men on the 25th of August, but was taken prisoner and wounded by Cialdini’s forces at Aspromonte on the 27th of August. Liberated by an amnesty, Garibaldi returned once more to Caprera amidst general sympathy.
In the spring of 1864 he went to London, where he was accorded an enthusiastic reception and given the freedom of the city. From England he returned again to Caprera. On the outbreak of war in 1866 he assumed command of a volunteer army and, after the defeat of the Italian troops at Custozza, took the offensive in order to cover Brescia. On the 3rd of July he defeated the Austrians at Monte Saello, on the 7th at Lodrone, on the 10th at Darso, on the 16th at Condino, on the 19th at Ampola, on the 21st at Bezzecca, but, when on the point of attacking Trent, he was ordered by General Lamarmora to retire. His famous reply “Obbedisco” (“I obey”) has often been cited as a classical example of military obedience to a command destructive of a successful leader’s hopes, but documents now published (cf. Corriere della sera, 9th of August 1906) prove beyond doubt that Garibaldi had for some days known that the order to evacuate the Trentino would shortly reach him. The order arrived on the 9th of August, whereas Crispi had been sent as early as the 16th of July to warn Garibaldi that, owing to Prussian opposition, Austria would not cede the Trentino to Italy, and that the evacuation was inevitable. Hence Garibaldi’s laconic reply. From the Trentino he returned to Caprera to mature his designs against Rome, which had been evacuated by the French in pursuance of the Franco-Italian convention of the 15th of September 1864. Gathering volunteers in the autumn of 1867, he prepared to enter papal territory, but was arrested at Sinalunga by the Italian government and conducted to Caprera. Eluding the surveillance of the Italian cruisers, he returned to Florence, and, with the complicity of the second Rattazzi cabinet, entered Roman territory at Passo Corese on the 23rd of October. Two days later he took Monterotondo, but on the 2nd of November his forces were dispersed at Mentana by French and papal troops. Recrossing the Italian frontier, he was arrested at Figline and taken back to Caprera, where he eked out his slender resources by writing several romances. In 1870 he formed a fresh volunteer corps and went to the aid of France, defeating the German troops at Chatillon, Autun and Dijon. Elected a member of the Versailles assembly, he resigned his mandate in anger at French insults, and withdrew to Caprera until, in 1874, he was elected deputy for Rome. Popular enthusiasm induced the Conservative Minghetti cabinet to propose that a sum of £40,000 with an annual pension of £2000 be conferred upon him as a recompense for his services, but the proposal, though adopted by parliament (27th May 1875), was indignantly refused by Garibaldi. Upon the advent of the Left to power, however, he accepted both gift and pension, and worked energetically upon the scheme for the Tiber embankment to prevent the flooding of Rome. At the same time he succeeded in obtaining the annulment of his marriage with the countess Raimondi (with whom he had never lived) and contracted another marriage with the mother of his children, Clelia and Manlio. In 1880 he went to Milan for the inauguration of the Mentana monument, and in 1882 visited Naples and Palermo, but was prevented by illness from being present at the 600th anniversary of the Sicilian Vespers. On the 2nd of June 1882 his death at Caprera plunged Italy into mourning.
See Garibaldi, Epistolario, ed. E. E. Ximenes (2 vols., Milan, 1885), and Memorie autografiche (11th ed., Florence, 1902; Eng. translation by A. Werner, with supplement by J. W. Mario in vol. iii. of 1888 ed.); Giuseppe Guerzoni, Garibaldi (2 vols., Florence, 1882); Jessie White Mario, Garibaldi e i suoi tempi (Milan, 1884); G. M. Trevelyan, Garibaldi’s Defence of the Roman Republic (London, 1907), which contains an excellent sketch of Garibaldi’s early career, of the events leading up to the proclamation of the Roman Republic, and a picturesque, detailed and authoritative account of the defence of Rome and of Garibaldi’s flight, with a very full bibliography; also Trevelyan’s Garibaldi and the Thousand (1909). (H. W. S.)
GARIN LE LOHERAIN, French epic hero. The 12th century
chanson de geste of Garin le Loherain is one of the fiercest and
most sanguinary narratives left by the trouvères. This local
cycle of Lorraine, which is completed by Hervis de Metz, Girbers
de Metz, Anséis, fils de Girbert and Yon, is obviously based on
history, and the failure absolutely to identify the events recorded
does not deprive the poems of their value as a picture of the
savage feudal wars of the 11th and 12th centuries. The episodes
are evolved naturally and the usual devices adopted by the
trouvères to reconcile their inconsistencies are absent. Nevertheless
no satisfactory historical explanation of the story has yet
been offered. It has been suggested by a recent critic (F.
Settegast, Quellenstudien zur gallo-romanischen Epik, 1904) that
these poems resume historical traditions going back to the
Vandal irruption of 408 and the battle fought by the Romans
and the West Goths against the Huns in 451. The cycle relates
