but the darkness began to gather round them as the ruin of Languedoc became more and more complete, culminating with the siege of Toulouse in 1218. The greatest name of this period, which was the beginning of the end, is that of Peire Cardenal, of Le Puy. He was protected by Jacme I., king of Aragon, having apparently fled from Narbonne and then from Toulouse in order to escape from the armies of Simon de Montfort. He was the inventor and the principal cultivator of the moral or ethical sirventés; and he was the author of singularly outspoken satires against the clergy, continuing the tradition of Marcabrun. The biographer of Cardenal certifies that he lived to be nearly one hundred years of age. Another and a still more violent troubadour of this transitional time was Guillem Figueira, the son of a Toulouse tailor, an open heretic who attacked the papacy with extraordinary vigour, supported and protected by Raimon II. Figueira was answered, strophe by strophe, by a female troubadour, Gormonda of Montpellier. The ruin of the southern courts, most of which belonged to the conquered Albigensi party, continued to depress and to exasperate the troubadours, whose system was further disintegrated by the establishment of the Inquisition and by the creation of the religious orders. The genial and cultured society of Provence and Languedoc sank rapidly into barbarism again, and there was no welcome anywhere for secular poets.
The last of the French troubadours was Guiraut Riquier (c. 1230-1294), who was born at Narbonne, and addressed his earliest poems to Phillippa of Anduza, the viscountess of that city. She does not seem to have encouraged poetry, and Guiraut Riquier left Narbonne, first appealing to St Louis, without success. He then turned to Spain, and found protection at the court of Alfonso X. the Learned. This monarch, himself a great poet, welcomed the crowd of troubadours who were now flying from the troubles of southern France. It was the ambition of Alfonso to be himself a troubadour, but the Provençal pieces which bear his name are now attributed to Riquier and to Nat de Mons; the king's genuine poems are those written in Galician. Riquier remained in the court of Castile until about 1279, when he returned to France and settled in Rodez with the count of that town, Henri II. This prince was almost the last seigneur in the south or centre of France who gathered a school of poets around him, and at Rodez the troubadours enjoyed for a few years their latest gleams of success and recognition. Riquier, in a sirventés of about 1285, gives pathetic expression to his sense of the gathering darkness, which makes it useless and almost unbecoming for a troubadour to practise his art, while of himself he mournfully confesses: “Song should express joy, but sorrow oppresses me, and I have come into the world too late.” Guiraut Riquier passed away about 1294, and left no successor behind him.
Bibliography. — F. Diez, Leben und Werke det Troubadours (Zwickau, 1829, 2nd ed. revised by K. Bartsch, Leipzig, l882); Die Poesie der Troubadours, 2nd ed., revised by K. Bartsch (Leipzig, 1883); C. Chabaneau, Les Biographies des troubadours (Toulouse, 1885). [This forms tome x. of the Histoire générale de Languedoc.} F. Raynouard, Choix des poésies originales des troubadours (6 vols., Paris, 1816-1821); Manuel Milá y Fontenals, Los Trovadores en España (Barcelona, 1861, 2nd ed., revised, Barcelona, 1889); Paul Meyer, Les Derniers troubadours de la Provence (Paris, 1871); Francis Hueffer, The Troubadours (London, 1878); A. Restori, Letteratura provenzale (Milan, 1891); C. Appel, Provenzalische chrestomathie (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1903); Joseph Anglade, Les Troubadours (Paris, 1908). Various editions of the life and works of separate troubadours have been published — Guilhem IX. of Poitiers, by A. Jeanroy (Toulouse, 1905); Bertram de Born, by A. Thomas (Toulouse, 1888); Peire Vidal by K. Bartsch (Berlin, 1857); Cercamon, by Dejeanne (Toulouse, 1905); Giraut de Bornelh, by A. Kolsen (Halle, 1907-1908); Peire of Auvergne, by Zenker (Erlanger, 1900); Sordello, by Cesare de Lollis (Halle, 1896); Guiraut Riquier by Joseph Anglade (Paris, 1905); Arnaut Daniel, by U. A. Canallo (Halle, 1883). Editions of Bernard de Ventadour, by M. C. Appel, and of Marcabrun, by Dr Dejeanne, had been undertaken in 1908.
(E. G.)
TROUBRIDGE, SIR THOMAS, Bart. (c. 1758-1807), English
admiral, was educated at St Paul's School, London, and entered
the navy in 1773. Having seen some service in the East Indies, he
was taken prisoner by the French in 1794, but his captivity was
only a short one and in February 1797 he commanded his ship,
the " Culloden," at the battle of Cape St Vincent. In the following July he assisted Nelson in the unsuccessful attack on Santa Cruz, and in August 1798, when getting into position foi the
attack on the French fleet, the " Culloden " ran aground and was
consequently unable to take any part in the battle of the Nile.
He then served in the Mediterranean and was created a baronet
in 1799; from 1801 to 1804 he was a lord of the admiralty, being
made a rear-admiral just before his retirement. In 1805
Troubridge was given a command in the East and he went out
in the " Blenheim." In January 1807 in this ship, an old and
damaged one, he left Madras for the Cape of Good Hope, but off
the coast of Madagascar the " Blenheim " foundered in a cyclone
and the admiral perished. His only son, Sir Edward Thomas
Troubridge, bart. (d. 1852), entered the navy in 1797 and was
present at the battle of Copenhagen. From 1831 to 1847 he was
member of parliament for Sandwich and from 1835 to 1841 he
was a lord of the admiralty. His son, Sir Thomas St Vincent
Hope Cochrane Troubridge, bart. (1815-1867), entered the army
in 1834, and was severely wounded at the battle of Inkerman.
TROUGHTON, EDWARD (1753-1835), English instrument
maker, was born in the parish of Corney in Cumberland in
October 1753. He joined his elder brother John in carrying
on the business of making mathematical instruments in Fleet
Street, London, and continued it alone after his brother's
death, until in 1826 he took W. Simms as a partner. He died in
London on the 12th of June 1835.
Troughton was very successful in improving the mechanical part of most nautical, geodetic and astronomical instruments, but complete colour-blindness prevented him from attempting experiments in optics. The first modern transit circle was constructed by him in 1806 for Steven Groombridge; but Troughton was dissatisfied with this form of instrument, which a few years afterwards was brought to great perfection by G. von Reichenbach and J. G. Repsold, and designed the mural circle in its place. The first instrument of this kind erected in Greenwich in 1812, and ten or twelve others were subquently constructed for other observatories; but they were ultimately superceeded by Troughton's earlier design, the transit circle, by which the two co-ordinates of an object can be determined simultaneously. He also made transit instruments, equatorials, &c.; but his failure to construct an equatorial mounting of large dimensions, and the consequent lawsuit with Sir James South, embittered the last years of his life.
TROUSERS, the name given to the article of dress worn by men, covering each leg separately and reaching from the waist to the foot. The word in its earlier forms is always found without the second r, e.g. trouses, trouzes, trooze, cf. the Lowland Scots word “ trews, ” and is an adaptation of the French trousses, trunk-hose, breeches, the plural of trousse, a bundle, pack, truss, from trousser, to pack, bundle up, tuck, tie up, girth, of which the origin is doubtful. In English the word “ trousers, ” when it first appears, was used of the leg-garments of the Irish, who Wore their breeches or trunk-hose and stockings in one piece, a custom to which there are many allusions in 17th-century literature. Knee-breeches and top-boots for out-of-door wear or stockings for indoor use lasted till the beginning of the 19th century as the regular costume for men. Pantaloons, loose trousers reaching to above the ankle, were worn in Venice by the poorer classes in the 17th century (for the origin of the name see Pantaloon). The characters of the Italian comedy made the style of garment familiar in France, but it was only seen in the fantastic costumes of the ballet. During the reign of Louis XVI. loose pantaloons became fashionable for the morning dishabille of men. Their adoption by the supporters of the Revolution was the origin of the name of sans-culottes applied to the revolutionaries. Beau Brummel, in England, was probably the first to make the “ Pantaloon ” popular. A striking feature of his dress were the tight-fitting black trousers reaching to the ankle, where they were buttoned. From this developed the true trousers, cut over the boot at the instep, at first open at the bottom and fastened by loops, later strapped tight under the boot. It is said that the duke of Wellington introduced this latter form after the Peninsular War. They were not recognized as correct for evening wear,
