with much freedom and originality. Some of the statuettes of saints attached to the slender columns of the canopy are modelled with much grace and even dignity of form. A small portrait figure of Peter himself, introduced at one end of the base, is a marvel of clever realism: he has represented himself as a stout, bearded man, wearing a large leathern apron and holding some of the tools of his craft. This gorgeous shrine is a remarkable example of the uncommercial spirit which animated the artists of that time, and of the evident delight which they took in their work. Dragons, grotesques and little figures of boys, mixed with graceful scroll foliage, crowd every possible part of the canopy and its shafts, designed in the most free and unconventional way and executed with an utter disregard of the time and labour which were lavished on them.
See R. Bauer, Peter Vischer und das alte Nürnberg (1886); C. Headlam, Peter Vischer (1901).
VISCHER, FRIEDRICH THEODOR (1807-1887), German writer on the philosophy of art, was born at Ludwigsburg on the 30th of June 1807, and was the son of a clergyman. He was educated at Tübingen, and began life in his father's profession. In 1835 he became Privatdozent in aesthetics and German literature at his old university, was advanced in 1837 to extraordinary professor, and in 1844 to full professor. In consequence, however, of his outspoken inaugural address, he was suspended for two years by the Württemberg government, and in his enforced leisure wrote the first two volumes of his Aesthetik, oder Wissenschaft des Schönen (1846), the fourth and last volume of which did not appear till 1857. Vischer threw himself heartily into the great German political movement of 1848–49, and shared the disappointment of patriotic democrats at its failure. In 1855 he became professor at Zürich. In 1866, his fame being now established, he was invited back to Germany with a professorship at Tübingen combined with a post at the Polytechnikum of Stuttgart. He died at Gmunden on the 14th of September 1887. His writings include literary essays collected under the titles Kritische Gänge and Altes und Neues, poems, an excellent critical study of Goethe's Faust (1875), and a successful novel, Auch Einer (1878; 25th ed., 1904). Vischer was not an original thinker, and his monumental Aesthetik, in spite of industry and learning, has not the higher qualities of success. He attempts the hopeless task of explaining art by the Hegelian dialectic. Starting with the definition of beauty as "the idea in the form of limited appearance," he goes on to develop the various elements of art (the beautiful, sublime and comic), and the various forms of art (plastic art, music and poetry) by means of the Hegelian antitheses—form and content, objective and subjective, inner conflict and reconciliation. The shape of the work also is repellently Hegelian, consisting of short highly technical paragraphs containing the main argument, followed by detailed explanations printed in different type. Still, Vischer had a thorough knowledge of every branch of art except music, and much valuable material is buried in his volumes. In later life Vischer moved considerably away from Hegelianism, and adopted the conceptions of sensuous completeness and cosmic harmony as criteria of beauty; but he never found time to rewrite his great book. His own work as a literary artist is of high quality; vigorous, imaginative and thoughtful without academic technicality.
See O. Keindl, F. T. Vischer, Erinnerungsblätter (1888); J. E. von Günthert, F. T. Vischer, ein Charakterbild (1888); I. Frapan, Vischer-Erinnerungen (1889); T. Ziegler, F. T. Vischer (Vortrag) (1893); J. G. Oswald, F. T. Vischer als Dichter (1896). (H. St.)
VISCONTI, the name of a celebrated Italian family which long ruled Milan; they claimed descent from King Desiderius, and in the 11th century possessed estates on Lakes Como and Maggiore. A certain Ottone, who distinguished himself in the First Crusade, is mentioned in 1078 as viscount of Milan. The real basis for the family's dominion was laid, however, by another Ottone, a canon of Desio, appointed archbishop of Milan by Pope Urban IV. in 1262 through the influence of Cardinal Ubaldini. The Delia Torre family, who then controlled the city, Opposed the appointment, and not until his victory at Desio in 1277 was Ottone able to take possession of his see. He imprisoned Napoleone Delia Torre and five of his relatives in iron cages, and directed his later efforts toward the advancement of his nephew Matteo. He died on the 18th of August 1295, aged eighty years. Matteo, born at Invorio on the 15th of August 1255, succeeded his uncle as political leader of Milan, and although an uprising of the Delia Torre in 1302 compelled him to take refuge at Verona, his steadfast loyalty to the imperial cause in Italy earned him the gratitude of Henry VII., who restored him to Milan in 1310 and made him imperial vicar of Lombardy. He brought under his rule Piacenza, Tortona, Pavia, Bergamo, Vercelli, Cremona and Alessandro. An able general, he yet relied for his conquests more on diplomacy and bribery, and was esteemed as a model of the prudent Italian despot. Persevering in his Ghibelline policy, and quarrelling with Pope John XXII. over an appointment to the archbishopric of Milan, he was excommunicated by the papal legale Bertrand du Puy in 1322. He at once abdicated in favour of his son Galeazzo, and died at Crescenzago on the 24th of June of the same year. He left besides Galeazzo several sons: Marco, Lucchino, Giovanni and Stefano. Galeazzo I. (1277–1328), who ruled at Milan from 1322 to 1328, met the Holy Army which the pope had sent against the Visconti at Vaprio on the Adda (1324), and defeated it with the aid of the emperor Louis the Bavarian. In 1327 he was imprisoned by the emperor at Monza because he was thought guilty of making peace with the church, and was released only on the intercession of his friend Castruccio Castracane. By his wife Beatrice d'Este he had the son Azzo who succeeded him. His brother Marco commanded a band of Germans, conquered Pisa and Lucca and died in 1329. Azzo (1302–1339), who succeeded his father in 1328, bought the title of imperial vicar for 25,000 florins from the same Louis who had imprisoned Galeazzo I. He conquered ten towns, murdered his uncle Marco (1329), suppressed a revolt led by his cousin Lodrisio, reorganized the administration of his estates, built the octagonal tower of S. Gottardo, and was succeeded in turn by his uncles Lucchino and Giovanni. Lucchino made peace with the church in 1341, bought Parma from Obizzo d'Este and made Pisa dependent on Milan. Although he showed ability as general and governor, he was jealous and cruel, and was poisoned in 1349 by his wife Isabella Fieschi. Giovanni, brother of the preceding, archbishop of Milan and lord of the city from 1349 to 1354, was one of the most notable characters of his time. He befriended Petrarch, extended the Visconti sway over Bologna (1350), defied Pope Clement VI., annexed Genoa (1353), and died on the 5th of October 1354 after having established the rule of his family over the whole of northern Italy except Piedmont, Verona, Mantua, Ferrara and Venice. The Visconti from the time of Archbishop Giovanni were no longer mere rivals of the Della Torre or dependants on imperial caprice, but real sovereigns with a recognized power over Milan and the surrounding territory. The state was partitioned on the death of Giovanni among his brother Stefano's three sons, Matteo II., Galeazzo II. and Bernabo. Matteo II., who succeeded to Bologna, Lodi, Piacenza and Parma, abandoned himself to the most revolting immorality, and was assassinated in 1355 by direction of his brothers, who thenceforth governed the state jointly and with considerable ability. Galeazzo II., who held his court at Pavia, was handsome and distinguished, the patron of Petrarch, the founder of the university of Pavia and a gifted diplomat. He married his daughter Violante to the duke of Clarence, son of Edward III. of England, giving a dowry of 200,000 gold florins; and his son Gian Galeazzo to Isabella, daughter of King John of France. He died in 1378. Bernabo, who held his court at Milan, was involved in constant warfare, to defray the expenses of which he instituted very oppressive taxes. He fought Popes Innocent VI. and Urban V., who proclaimed a crusade against him. He fought the emperor Charles IV., who declared the forfeiture of his fief. He
