pahoehoe corresponds practically with the Fladen lava of German
vulcanologists, and the aa with their Schollen lava. Rugged flows
are known in Auvergne as cheires. The surface of a clinker-field
has often a horribly jagged character, being covered with ragged
blocks bristling with sharp points. In the case of an obsidian-flow
a most dangerous surface is produced by the keen edges and points
of the fragmentary volcanic glass.
If, after a stream of lava has become crusted over, the underlying magma should flow away, a long cavern or tunnel may be formed. Should the flow be rapid the roof may collapse and the fragments, falling on to the stream, may be carried forward or become absorbed in the fused mass. The walls and roof of a lava-cave are occasionally adorned with stalactites, whilst the floor may be covered with stalagmitic deposits of lava. The volcanic stalactites are slender, tubular bodies, extremely fragile, often knotted and rippled. Beautiful examples of lava stalactites from Hawaii have been described by Professor E. S. Dana. Caverns may also be formed in lava-flows by the presence of large bubbles, or by the union of several bubbles. It may happen, too, that certain monticules thrown up on the surface of the lava are hollow, of which a famous example is furnished by the Caverne de Rosemond, at the base of Piton Barry, in the Isle of Réunion.
It is of great interest to determine whether molten lava contracts or expands on solidification, but the experimental evidence on this subject is rather conflicting. According to some observers a piece of solid lava thrown on to the surface of the same lava in a liquid state will sink, while according to others it floats. It has often been observed that cakes formed by the natural fracture of the crust on the lava of Kilauea sink in the liquid mass, but it has been suggested that the fragments are drawn down by convection-currents. On the other hand a solid piece, though denser than the corresponding liquid, may be buoyed up for a time by the viscous condition of the molten lava. Moreover, the presence of minute vesicles may lighten the mass. Although the minerals of a rock-magma may separately contract on crystallization it does net follow that the magma itself, in which they probably exist in a state of solution, will undergo on crystallization a similar change of volume. On the whole, however, there seems reason to believe that lava on solidifying almost always diminishes in volume and consequently increases in density.
According to the experiments of C. Doelter the specific gravity of molten lava is invariably less than that of the same lava when solid, though in some cases the difference is brit slight. In a vitreous or isotropic condition the lava has a lower density than when crystalline. The differences are illustrated by the following table, where the figures give the specific gravity:—
| Natural solid lava. |
Liquid. | Rapidly cooled, glassy. |
Slowly cooled, crystalline. | |
| Lava of Etna | 2.83 | 2.58–2.74 | 2.71–2.75 | 2.81–2.83 |
| Lava of„ Vesuvius | 2.83–2.85 | 2.69–2.74 | 2.69–2.75 | 2.77–2.81 |
Experiments by Dr C. Barus showed that a diabase of specific gravity 3.017 formed a glass of sp. gr. 2.717, and melted to a liquid of sp. gr. 2.52. J. A. Douglas on examining various igneous rocks found that in all cases the rock in a vitreous state had a lower sp. gr. than in a crystalline condition, the difference being greatest in the acid plutonic rocks. A. Harker, however, has called attention to the fact that the glassy selvage of certain basic dykes in Scotland is denser than the same rock in a crystalline condition in the interior of the dykes.
Physical Structure of Lavas.—An amorphous vitreous mass may result from the rapid cooling of a lava on its extrusion from the volcanic vent. The common type of volcanic glass is known as obsidian (q.v.). Microscopic examination usually shows that even in this glass some of the molecules of the magma have assumed definite orientation, forming the incipient crystalline bodies known as microlites, &c. By the increase of these minute enclosures, in number and magnitude, the lava may become devitrified and assume a lithoidal or stony structure. If the molten magma consolidate slowly, the various silicates in solution tend to separate by crystallization as their respective points of saturation are reached. Should the process be arrested before the entire mass has crystallized, the crystals that have been developed will be embedded in the residual magma, which may, on consolidation, form a vitreous base. It is believed that in many cases the lava brings up, through its conduit, myriads of crystals that have been developed during slow solidification in the heart of the volcanic apparatus. Showers of crystals of leucite have occurred at Vesuvius, of labradorite at Etna, and of pyroxene at Vesuvius, Etna and Stromboli. These “intratelluric crystals” were probably floating in the molten magma, and had they remained in suspension, this magma might on consolidation have enveloped them as a ground-mass or base. A rock so formed is generally known as a “porphyry,” and the structure as porphyritic. In such a lava the large crystals, or phenocrysts, evidently represent an early phase of consolidation, and the minerals of the matrix a later stage. It is notable that the intratelluric crystals often lack sharpness of outline, as though they had suffered corrosion by attack of the molten magma, whilst they may contain vitreous enclosures, suggesting that the surrounding mass was liquid during their consolidation. It is believed that the more slowly consolidation has occurred, the larger generally are the crystals, and the higher the temperature of the magma the greater the corrosion or resorption. Possibly under certain conditions the phenocrysts and the ground mass may have solidified simultaneously.
Tn some cases the entire igneous mass assumes a crystalline structure, or becomes “holocrystalline” Such a structure 1s well displayed when the magma has consolidated at considerable depths, cooling slowly under great pressure, and forming rocks which are termed “plutome” or “abyssal” to distinguish them from rocks truly volcanic, or those which, if not effusive, like lava-flows, have at least solidified very near to the surface as dykes and sills. Volcanic and plutonic rocks pass, however, into each other by gradual transition. The dyke-rocks, or intrusive masses, form an intermediate group sometimes distinguished under the name of “hypabyssal” rocks, as suggested by W. C. Brögger. Lavas extruded in submarine eruptions may have solidified under a great weight of sea-water, and therefore to that extent rather under plutonic conditions.
Chemical Composition of Lavas.—Lavas are usually classified roughly, from a chemical point of view, in broad groups according to the proportion of silica which they contain. Those in which the proportion of silica reaches 66% or upwards are said to be acid or acidic, whilst those in which it falls to 55% or below are called basic lavas. The two series are connected by a group of intermediate composition, whilst a small number of igneous rocks of exceptional type are recognized as ultrabasic. Professor F. W. Clarke has suggested a grouping of igneous rocks as per-silicic, medio-silicic and sub-silicic, in which the proportion of silica is respectively more than 60, between 50 and 60, or less than 50%.
By far the greater part of all lavas consists of various silicates, either crystallized as definite minerals or unindividualized as volcanic glass. In addition, however, to the mineral silicates, a volcanic rock may contain a limited amount of free acid and basic oxides, represented by such minerals as quartz and magnetite. Rhyolite may be cited as a typical example of an acid lava, andesite as an intermediate and basalt as a basic lava. The various volcanic rocks are described under their respective headings, so that it is needless to refer here to their chemical or mineralogical composition. It may, however, be useful to cite a few selected analyses of some recent lavas and ashes:—
| I. | II. | III. | IV. | V. | VI. | |
| Silica | 48.28 | 49.73 | 50.00 | 68.09 | 61.88 | 49.20 |
| Alumina | 18.39 | 18.46 | 13.99 | 16.07 | 18.30 | 14.90 |
| Ferric oxide | 1.12 | 6.95 | 5.13 | 2.63 | 1.97 | 4.51 |
| Ferrous oxide | 7.88 | 5.59 | 9.10 | 1.10 | 4.32 | 12.75 |
| Manganous oxide | 0.28 | 0.28 | ||||
| Magnesia | 3.72 | 3.99 | 4.06 | 1.08 | 2.71 | 3.90 |
| Lime | 9.20 | 10.71 | 10.81 | 3.16 | 6.32 | 9.20 |
| Soda | 2.84 | 3.50 | 3.02 | 4.04 | 3.17 | 1.96 |
| Potash | 7.25 | 1.07 | 2.87 | 1.83 | 1.09 | 0.95 |
| Titanium dioxide | 1.28 | 0.82 | 0.31 | 1.72 | ||
| Phosphorus pentoxide | 0.51 | 0.09 | 0.42 | |||
| Loss on ignition | 0.62 | 0.24 | 0.19 | 0.10 | ||
| 100.96 | 100.00 | 99.22 | 100.00 | 100.35 | 99.89 |
| I. | From Vesuvius, eruption of 1906, by M. Pisani. |
| II. | From Etna Mean of several analyses by Silvestri and Fuchs (Mercalli). |
| III. | From Stromboli, 1891, by Ricciardi. |
| IV. | From Krakatoa eruption of 1883, by C. Winkler. |
| V. | From Mont Pelé, Martinique eruption of 1902, by M. Pisani. |
| VI. | From Kilauea, Hawaii, by O. Silvestri. |
In the course of the Life of a volcano, the lava which it emits may undergo changes, within moderate limits, being at one time more acid, at another more basic. Such changes are sometimes connected with a shifting of the axis of eruption. Thus at Etna the lavas from the old axis of Trifoglietto in the Valle del Bove were andesites, with about 55% of silica, but those rising in the present conduit are doleritic, with a silica-content of only about 50%. It seems probable that, to a limited extent, changes in the character of a lava may sometimes be due to contact of the magma with different rocks underground: if these are rich in silica, the acidity of the lava will naturally increase; while of they are rich in calcareous and ferro-magnesian constituents, the basicity will increase: the variation is consequently apt to be only local, and probably always slight.
By von Richthofen and some others it has been held that during a long period of igneous activity a definite order in the succession of the erupted rocks is everywhere constant, but though some striking coincidences may be cited, it can hardly be said that this generalization has been satisfactorily established. It has, however, often been observed, as emphasized by Professor Iddings, that a volcanic centre will start with the emission of lavas of neutral or intermediate type, followed in the course of a geological period by
