Wikipedia

Politician

For other uses, see The Politician (disambiguation).

A politician is a person who participates in policy-making processes, usually holding a position in government. Politicians represent the people, make decisions, and influence the formulation of public policy. The roles or duties that politicians must perform vary depending on the level of government they serve, whether local, national, or international. The ideological orientation that politicians adopt often stems from their previous experience, education, beliefs, the political parties they belong to, or public opinion. Politicians sometimes face many challenges and mistakes that may affect their credibility and ability to persuade. These mistakes include corruption resulting from their misuse and exploitation of power to achieve their interests, which requires them to prioritize the public interest and develop long-term strategies. Challenges include how to keep up with the development of social media and confronting biased media, in addition to discrimination against them on the basis of gender, race, or belief, which requires them to adapt their communications to engage citizens, confront discrimination, and spread their message effectively.

Politician
U.S. politicians (Kissinger, Nixon, Ford, Haig) in the White House's Oval Office discussing Representative Ford's nomination to the vice presidency
Occupation
Names
Occupation type
Politician
Activity sectors
Government
Description
Competencies
Education required
Qualification is not required
Fields of
employment
Government
Related jobs
Monarch

Identity

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Nineteenth-century painting by Philipp Foltz depicting the Athenian politician Pericles delivering his famous funeral oration in front of the Assembly.

Politicians are people who participate in policy-making, in a multifaceted variety of positions of responsibility both domestically and internationally.[1][2]

The role of the politician has changed dramatically over time, for example, Pericles of Athens played an important role in politics in ancient Greece both in public life and in decision-making as depicted in Philip Foltz's 19th-century painting.[3]

Over time the figure of the politician has evolved to include many forms and functions. For example, In the United States of America, George Washington played a pivotal role as a politician because he was the first President of the United States of America.[4] Today, political offices take many forms in the modern century in the United States of America such as ministers, mayors, governors, senators, and presidents, each of whom has different duties.[5]

While all government leaders are considered politicians, not all politicians are subject to voters, autocratic and dictatorial regimes remain extant.[6]

 
This portrait is a copy by Stuart based on his own uncompleted w:Athenaeum Portrait. This copy has been published in pre-1923 materials, including p. 442 of The Life of George Washington and p. 79 of Early American Painters.

The identity of politicians is influenced  by their social and work environments, their ideology, and the parties to which they belong, furthermore, the development of means of communication and social media have increased public participation in policy-making, leading to a reformation of  politician's identity  and increasing the complexity of political work.[7][8]

Media and rhetoric

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Barack Obama, Public Speech, Technology and Innovation, Manufacturing, Intel Fab 42.Political leaders use public events to frame issues and influence public opinion by crafting appropriate rhetoric.

Politicians are influential people who use rhetoric to impact people as in speeches or campaign advertisements. They are especially known for using common themes,  and media platforms that allow them to develop their political positions,  developing communication between them and the people.[9][10][11]

 
Photo of the second of the four presidential debates held during the 1960 presidential election. This debate took place in Washington D.C. at NBC's WRC-TV studios on October 7, 1960.

Politicians of necessity become expert users of the media.[12] Politicians in the 19th century made heavy use of newspapers, magazines, and pamphlets, as well as posters to disseminate their messages to appeal to voters' emotions and beliefs in their campaigns.[13][14] In the 20th century, the scope of media expanded out into radio and television, and a major change occurred as speech was now presented visually as well as verbally as evidenced by the Kennedy-Nixon debates, marking a new era where visual media became crucial to campaigns.[15] The twenty-first century has provided wide and diverse media platforms represented by Facebook, and Twitter, which has now become X, Instagram, YouTube, and others. This development has made their rhetorical messages faster, shorter more efficient, and characterized by the speed of spread and interaction.[16][17][18]

Politicians, who rarely meet voters in person, seek to use the media as a means of communicating with people, winning votes, and obtaining political roles. Some research confirms that the media increases the popularity of a politician, and indicates that negative news has a stronger effect on popularity than positive news.[19]

Some research has suggested that politicians tend to use social media more than traditional media because their perception of the traditional media’s influence as a public informant greatly affects their satisfaction with democratic processes. So they prefer to use social media and communicate directly with people in order to have greater control over their message and easier communication.[20]

This continuous evolution in media has made politicians adapt their discourse to these diverse and evolving platforms for greater communication and effectiveness.[21]

Challenges

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In this century of advanced communications, politicians face challenges and difficulties while communicating with people through various social media platforms . The implicit importance of social media for politics stems from the virtual space these platforms have created for expressing ideas and spreading mutual messages without restrictions.[22] Misinformation , rumors, and discrimination complicate their political behavior and communication with people.[23] [24]

Also, Political polarization created by the media plays a role in influencing politicians’ behavior and communications, which reinforces negative campaigns. They also play a role in legislative gridlock and negatively impact public perception, which negatively impacts politicians’ interests.[25]

Additionally, research highlighted that politicians, especially populist politicians, may create a challenge for themselves by increasingly accusing the media of spreading misinformation or “fake news.” Such accusations can undermine the credibility of media platforms, even though trust in the accused politicians remains largely unaffected. They will therefore have a negative impact on the credibility of media platforms, and this distrust may extend to the media institutions as a whole that politicians use to communicate with people.[26]

 
Presenters at Women in Media and Politics

Regarding the challenges of gender dynamics, particularly the role of women in politics, some recent research focuses on the life path of women in the political field and the challenges surrounding them. For example, there are studies on the "supermader" model in politics in Latin America, which illustrate the difficulties women face and how to balance their home and work and the distinction between women and men that negatively affects their acceptance in political work. .[27][28]

Government job and spoils

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Historically, in patronage-based systems, especially in the 19th century, winning politicians replaced civil servants and government employees who were not protected by the rules of government service with their supporters, a so-called “spoils system.” In response to the corruption this system fostered, government job reforms were introduced. These reforms required elected politicians to work with existing civil servants and officials to pursue long-term public interest goals, rather than simply rewarding their supporters. This shift aimed to reduce corruption and prioritize the integrity of government positions.[29][30]

A notable example of government reform over time are

 
An Act to regulate and improve the civil service of the United States, January 16, 1883; Enrolled Acts and Resolutions of Congress, 1789-1996; General Records of the United States Government; Record Group 11; National Archives.

The Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act of 1883 passed by the U.S. Congress to combat corruption, favoritism in hiring, and the spoils system. It advocated hiring based on merit and protected civil servants from political influence.[31][32]

In the modern century, many laws have been put in place to protect employees and reduce corruption and favoritism in employment, for example, the Mexican government introduced the Federal Law on Administrative Responsibilities of Public Officials (2002) which establishes professional and accountable standards for officials against corruption and the spoils system.[33]

Also, The Whistleblower Protection Enhancement Act of 2012 in the USA has established corruption to protect federal employees who report corruption, fraud, or other illegal activities within the government.[34]

Careers and biographies

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Mattozzi and Merlo argue that politicians typically follow two main career paths in modern democracies. The first is career politicians who remain in government until retirement. The second is political careerists, who have gained a reputation for their experience at various levels of government such as international, federal, state, and local governments, they often leave politics and start a new business venture using their political connections.[35]

The personal histories of politicians have been frequently studied, as it is presumed that their experiences and characteristics shape their beliefs and behaviors. There are four pathways by which a politician's biography could influence their leadership style and abilities. First, a politician’s biography may shape their core beliefs, which are essential to shaping their worldview.[36] The second pathway is those personal experiences that influence a politician's skills and competence, and which determine where politicians focus their resources and attention as leaders.[37] The third pathway refers to biographical characteristics that influence a politician's resource allocation and responses based on characteristics such as race or gender. The fourth pathway is how a politician's biography affects his public perception, which affects politicians' leadership style and their strategy for gaining people's respect.[38]

Characteristics

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Numerous scholars have studied the characteristics of politicians and in economic class to explain characteristics impact on politicians' effectiveness and electoral success, comparing politicians involves different dimensions such as level of government (the local and national levels), political ideology (liberal or the more conservative), economic class, and comparing the more successful and less successful in terms of elections.[39][40] Demographic factors such as age, gender, education, income, and race/ethnicity, play a role in shaping shape voter behavior and political preferences[41]

Also, educational background in politics also plays an important role in shaping the political awareness of politicians and plays a major role in increasing people’s confidence in them.[42]

Criticism

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Some critics often accuse politicians of not communicating with the public. They accuse politicians' speeches of being sometimes overly formal, filled with many euphemisms and metaphors, and generally seen as an attempt to "obscure, mislead, and confuse".[43][44]

Lack of awareness, selfishness, manipulation, and dishonesty are perceptions that people often accuse politicians of, and many see them as prioritizing personal interests over the public interests.[45] Politicians in many countries are seen as the “most hated professionals,” and the least trustworthy, leading to public skepticism and constant criticism.[45]

In addition, some politicians tend to be negative, this strategy, although it does not enhance their chances of being re-elected or gaining public support, politicians see this negativity as consistent with negative media bias, which increases their chances of securing media access and public attention.[46]

 
The Immunity Bath (J.J. Hanberg leaving the Grand Jury Room, surrounded by stamped vouchers), March 5, 1910

Also, lack of accountability and the immunity from prosecution they receive as politicians results in further corruption and evasion from legal punishment,[47] as represented by the immunity bath depiction by J.J. Hanberg[48]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Geys, Benny; Mause, Karsten (2021). "Politicians". Encyclopedia of Law and Economics. pp. 1–5. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-7883-6_370-2. ISBN 978-1-4614-7883-6.
  2. ^ "politician – Princeton Wordnet dictionary". wordfind.com.
  3. ^ Mark, joshua (28 March 2018). "Pericles". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 23 September 2024.
  4. ^ "George Washington: The First President". The White House. n.d. Retrieved 23 September 2024.
  5. ^ "State & Local Government". The White House. n.d. Retrieved 23 September 2024.
  6. ^ Angiolillo, F.; Wiebrecht, F.; Lindberg, S. I. (2023). ""Democratic-autocratic party systems: A new index"" (PDF). V-Dem Institute.
  7. ^ Olaniran, Bolane; Williams, Indi (2020). "Social Media Effects: Hijacking Democracy and Civility in Civic Engagement". Platforms, Protests, and the Challenge of Networked Democracy. Rhetoric, Politics and Society. pp. 77–94. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-36525-7_5. ISBN 978-3-030-36524-0.
  8. ^ Michalski, P. (2023). ""When politics affects the self: High political influence perception predicts civic and political participation."". Journal of Social and Political Psychology.
  9. ^ Archer, Alfred; Cawston, Amanda (February 2022). "Celebrity Politics and Democratic Elitism". Topoi. 41 (1): 33–43. doi:10.1007/s11245-021-09763-0. PMC 8503715. PMID 34658468.
  10. ^ Charteris-Black, Jonathan (2011). Politicians and Rhetoric. doi:10.1057/9780230319899. ISBN 978-0-230-25165-6.[page needed]
  11. ^ Knupffer, N (2012). "President Barack Obama delivering a speech at Intel's Fab 42 in Chandler, Arizona on January 25, 2012, as part of his public address on the future of advanced manufacturing in the U.S." Flickr.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  12. ^ Landtsheer, Christ'l De; Feldman, Ofer (2000). Beyond Public Speech and Symbols: Explorations in the Rhetoric of Politicians and the Media. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-0-275-96732-1.[page needed]
  13. ^ U.S. National Archives (2022). "American elections and campaigns – 1800 to 1865: Politics in the antebellum press". The Reagan Library Education Blog. U.S. National Archives.
  14. ^ Dinkin, Robert J. (1989). Campaigning in America: A History of Election Practices. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-0-313-26167-1.[page needed]
  15. ^ Silvestri, Vito N. (June 2019). "Television's Interface With Kennedy, Nixon, and Trump: Two Politicians and One TV Celebrity". American Behavioral Scientist. 63 (7): 971–1001. doi:10.1177/0002764218784992.
  16. ^ Pearlman, Nathaniel G. (2012). Margin of Victory: How Technologists Help Politicians Win Elections. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN 978-1-4408-0258-4.[page needed]
  17. ^ Tan, Jue Jun; Firdaus, Amira; Aksar, Iffat Ali (31 March 2024). "Social Media for Political Information: A Systematic Literature Review". Jurnal Komunikasi: Malaysian Journal of Communication. 40 (1): 77–98. doi:10.17576/JKMJC-2024-4001-05.
  18. ^ Fatema, S.; Yanbin, L; Fugui, D (2022). ""Social media influence on politicians' and citizens' relationship through the moderating effect of political slogans."". Frontiers in Communication. 7. doi:10.3389/fcomm.2022.955493.
  19. ^ Van Remoortere, A.; Vliegenthart, R. (2024). ""The influence of mass media on the popularity of politicians"". Party Politics. 30 (5): 781–794. doi:10.1177/13540688231187964.
  20. ^ Maurer, P. (2023). "Perceptions of media influence and performance among politicians in European democracies". International Communication Gazette. 85 (5): 347–364. doi:10.1177/17480485221146088. PMC 10409637. PMID 37564296.
  21. ^ Munardin Hadma, Ahmad; Dwi Anggoro, Juliardi (23 November 2021). "Political communication in the age of social media". Commicast. 3 (1): 1–7. doi:10.12928/commicast.v3i1.5114.
  22. ^ Wike, R.; others (2022). "Social media seen as mostly good for democracy across many nations, but U.S. is a major outlier". Pew Research Center.
  23. ^ Lasser, Jana; Aroyehun, Segun Taofeek; Simchon, Almog; Carrella, Fabio; Garcia, David; Lewandowsky, Stephan (September 2022). "Social media sharing of low-quality news sources by political elites". PNAS Nexus. 1 (4): pgac186. doi:10.1093/pnasnexus/pgac186. PMC 7613815. PMID 36380855.
  24. ^ Oskooii, K (2018). ""Perceived Discrimination and Political Behavior"". British Journal of Political Science. 50 (3): 867–892. doi:10.1017/S0007123418000133.
  25. ^ Kubin, E.; von Sikorski, C. (2021). ""The role of (social) media in political polarization: a systematic review"". Annals of the International Communication Association. 45 (3): 188–206. doi:10.1080/23808985.2021.1976070.
  26. ^ Egelhofer, J; Boyer, M; Lecheler, S; Aaldering, L (2022). ""Populist attitudes and politicians' disinformation accusations: Effects on perceptions of media and politicians"". Journal of Communication. 72 (6): 619–632. doi:10.1093/joc/jqac031.
  27. ^ Chaney, Elsa M. (2014). Supermadre: Women in Politics in Latin America. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-77265-6.[page needed]
  28. ^ Schwindt-Bayer, Leslie A. (July 2006). "Still Supermadres? Gender and the Policy Priorities of Latin American Legislators". American Journal of Political Science. 50 (3): 570–585. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5907.2006.00202.x.
  29. ^ Aberbach, Joel D.; Putnam, Robert D.; Rockman, Bert A. (1981). Bureaucrats and Politicians in Western Democracies. doi:10.4159/9780674020047. ISBN 978-0-674-02004-7.[page needed]
  30. ^ Bersch, Katherine; Lotta, Gabriela (February 2024). "Political Control and Bureaucratic Resistance: The Case of Environmental Agencies in Brazil". Latin American Politics and Society. 66 (1): 27–50. doi:10.1017/lap.2023.22.
  31. ^ National Archives (n.d.). "Pendleton Act (1883)". Milestone Documents.
  32. ^ Aneja, A.; Xu, G (2022). ""Strengthening State Capacity: Postal Reform and Innovation During the Gilded Age"". National Bureau of Economic Research.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  33. ^ Zamora, Stephen; Cossío, José Ramlón; Pereznieto, Lenone; Roldá n-Xopa, José; Lopez, David (2005). "Administrative Law". Mexican Law. pp. 287–320. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199288489.003.0009. ISBN 978-0-19-928848-9.
  34. ^ Congress.gov (2012). "Whistleblower Protection Enhancement Act of 2012: 112th Congress (2011-2012)". Congress.gov.
  35. ^ Mattozzi, Andrea; Merlo, Antonio (April 2008). "Political careers or career politicians?" (PDF). Journal of Public Economics. 92 (3–4): 597–608. doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2007.10.006.
  36. ^ Weinschenk, Aaron C.; Dawes, Christopher T.; Oskarsson, Sven; Klemmensen, Robert; Nørgaard, Asbjørn Sonne (February 2021). "The relationship between political attitudes and political participation: Evidence from monozygotic twins in the United States, Sweden, Germany, and Denmark". Electoral Studies. 69: 102269. doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2020.102269.
  37. ^ Cramer, Katherine J.; Toff, Benjamin (September 2017). "The Fact of Experience: Rethinking Political Knowledge and Civic Competence". Perspectives on Politics. 15 (3): 754–770. doi:10.1017/S1537592717000949. ProQuest 1929729634.
  38. ^ Krcmaric, Daniel; Nelson, Stephen C.; Roberts, Andrew (2020). "Studying Leaders and Elites: The Personal Biography Approach". Annual Review of Political Science. 23: 133–151. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050718-032801.
  39. ^ Prinz, Timothy S (1993). "The career paths of elected politicians: a review and prospectus". In Williams, Shirley; Lascher, Edward L. (eds.). Ambition and Beyond: Career Paths of American Politicians. Institute of Governmental Studies Press, University of California, Berkeley. pp. 11–63. ISBN 978-0-87772-338-7.
  40. ^ Carnes, Nicholas; Lupu, Noam (15 June 2023). "The Economic Backgrounds of Politicians". Annual Review of Political Science. 26 (1): 253–270. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-051921-102946. SSRN 4480849.
  41. ^ Kulachai, W.; Lerdtomornsakul, U.; Homyamyen, P. (2023). ""Factors influencing voting decision: A comprehensive literature review"". Social Sciences. 12 (9). MDPI: 469. doi:10.3390/socsci12090469.
  42. ^ Hooghe, Marc; Dassonneville, Ruth; Marien, Sofie (2015). "The impact of education on the development of political trust: Results from a five year panel study among late adolescents and young adults in Belgium" (PDF). Political Studies.
  43. ^ Vincent E. Barry (2007): Invitation to Critical Thinking p. 319 [ISBN missing]
  44. ^ Walker, Alexander C.; Turpin, Martin Harry; Meyers, Ethan A.; Stolz, Jennifer A.; Fugelsang, Jonathan A.; Koehler, Derek J. (June 2021). "Controlling the narrative: Euphemistic language affects judgments of actions while avoiding perceptions of dishonesty". Cognition. 211: 104633. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104633. PMID 33639377.
  45. ^ a b Heidenheimer, Arnold I.; Lohnston, Michael (2017). Johnston, Michael (ed.). Political Corruption. doi:10.4324/9781315126647. ISBN 978-1-315-12664-7.[page needed]
  46. ^ Poljak, Z (2024). ""Give the Media What They Need: Negativity as a Media Access Tool for Politicians"". The International Journal of Press/Politics. doi:10.1177/19401612241234861. hdl:10067/2034760151162165141.
  47. ^ Jensenius, F. R.; Wood, A. K. (2016). "Caught in the act but not punished: On elite rule of law and deterrence". Penn State Journal of Law & International Affairs. 4 (2): 686.
  48. ^ Hanberg, J.J. (5 March 1910). ""The Immunity Bath" (leaving the Grand Jury Room, surrounded by stamped vouchers)".

Further reading

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