Politics (from Template:Lang-gr, Template:Lang-gr) is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions that apply to groups of members[1] and achieving and exercising positions of governance—organized control over a human community.[2] The academic study of politics is referred to as political science.
Politics is a multifaceted word. It has a set of fairly specific meanings that are descriptive and nonjudgmental (e.g. "the art or science of government" and "political principles"), but does often colloquially carry a negative connotation.[1][3][4] The word has been used negatively for many years: the British national anthem, as published in 1745, calls on God to "confound their politics,"[5] while the phrase "play politics," for example, has been in use since at least 1853, when abolitionist Wendell Phillips declared that "we do not play politics; anti-slavery is no half-jest with us."[6]
A variety of methods are deployed in politics, which include promoting one's own political views among people, negotiation with other political subjects, making laws, and exercising force, including warfare against adversaries.[7][8][9][10][11] Politics is exercised on a wide range of social levels, from clans and tribes of traditional societies, through modern local governments, companies and institutions up to sovereign states, to the international level. In modern nation states, people often form political parties to represent their ideas. Members of a party often agree to take the same position on many issues and agree to support the same changes to law and the same leaders. An election is usually a competition between different parties.
A political system is a framework which defines acceptable political methods within a society. The history of political thought can be traced back to early antiquity, with seminal works such as Plato's Republic, Aristotle's Politics, Chanakya's Arthashastra and Chanakya Niti (3rd Century BCE), as well as the works of Confucius.[12]
Etymology
The English word "politics" derives from the Greek word politiká (Template:Lang-grc), the name of Aristotle's classic work, Politiká. In the mid-15th century, Aristotle's composition would be rendered in Early Modern English as "Polettiques",[a][13] which would become "Politics" in Modern English.
The singular politic first attested in English in 1430, coming from Middle French Template:Lang-fr—itself taking from Template:Lang-la,[14] a Latinization of the Greek Template:Lang-grc (politikos) from Template:Lang-grc (polites, 'citizen') and Template:Lang-grc (polis, 'city').[15]
Definitions
According to Harold Lasswell, politics is "who gets what, when, how".[16]
For David Easton, it is about "the authoritative allocation of values for a society".[17]
To Vladimir Lenin, "politics is the most concentrated expression of economics".[18]
Bernard Crick argued that "politics is a distinctive form of rule whereby people act together through institutionalized procedures to resolve differences, to conciliate diverse interests and values and to make public policies in the pursuit of common purposes".[19]
Adrian Leftwich gives the definition that "Politics comprises all the activities of co-operation, negotiation and conflict within and between societies, whereby people go about organizing the use, production or distribution of human, natural and other resources in the course of the production and reproduction of their biological and social life".[20]
Approaches to politics
There are several ways in which approaching politics has been conceptualized.
Extensive and limited approaches
Adrian Leftwich has differentiated views of politics based on how extensive or limited their perception of what accounts as 'political' is.[21] The extensive view sees politics as present across the sphere of human social relations, while the limited view restricts it to certain contexts. For example, in a more restrictive way, politics may be viewed as primarily about governance,[22] while a feminist perspective could argue that sites which have been viewed traditionally as non-political, should indeed be viewed as political as well.[23] This latter position is encapsulated in the slogan the personal is political, which disputes the distinction between private and public issues. Instead, politics may be defined by the use of power, as has been argued by Robert A. Dahl.[24]
Empirical and normative
Some perspectives on politics view it empirically as an exercise of power, while other see it as a social function with a normative basis.[25] According to Hannah Arendt, the view of Aristotle was that "to be political . . . meant that everything was decided through words and persuasion and not through violence"[26], while according to Bernard Crick "Politics is the way in which free societies are governed. Politics is politics and other forms of rule are something else".[27] A contrasting account, represented by those such as Niccolò Machiavelli and Harold Lasswell, is based on the use of power in all situations, irrespective of their normative context.[28]
History of politics
The history of politics spans human history and is not limited to modern institutions of government.
Prehistoric
Frans de Waal argued that already chimpanzees engage in politics through "social manipulation to secure and maintain influential positions".[29] Early human forms of social organization—bands and tribes—lacked centralized political structures.[30] These are called stateless societies.
State formation
There are a number of different theories and hypotheses regarding early state formation that seek generalizations to explain why the state developed in some places but not others. Other scholars believe that generalizations are unhelpful and that each case of early state formation should be treated on its own.[31]
Voluntary theories contend that diverse groups of people came together to form states as a result of some shared rational interest.[32] The theories largely focus on the development of agriculture, and the population and organizational pressure that followed and resulted in state formation. One of the most prominent theories of early and primary state formation is the hydraulic hypothesis, which contends that the state was a result of the need to build and maintain large-scale irrigation projects.[33]
Conflict theories of state formation regard conflict and dominance of some population over another population as key to the formation of states.[34] In contrast with voluntary theories, these arguments believe that people do not voluntarily agree to create a state to maximize benefits, but that states form due to some form of oppression by one group over others.
Some theories in turn argue that warfare was critical for state formation.[35]
Early states
In ancient history, civilizations did not have definite boundaries as states have today, and their borders could be more accurately described as frontiers. Early dynastic Sumer, and early dynastic Egypt were the first civilizations to define their borders. Moreover, up to the twentieth century, many people lived in non-state societies. These range from relatively egalitarian bands and tribes to complex and highly stratified chiefdoms.
The first states of sorts were those of early dynastic Sumer and early dynastic Egypt, which arose from the Uruk period and Predynastic Egypt respectively at approximately 3000BCE.[36] Early dynastic Egypt was based around the Nile River in the north-east of Africa, the kingdom's boundaries being based around the Nile and stretching to areas where oases existed.[37] Early dynastic Sumer was located in southern Mesopotamia with its borders extending from the Persian Gulf to parts of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers.[36]
Although state-forms existed before the rise of the Ancient Greek empire, the Greeks were the first people known to have explicitly formulated a political philosophy of the state, and to have rationally analyzed political institutions. Prior to this, states were described and justified in terms of religious myths.[38]
Several important political innovations of classical antiquity came from the Greek city-states and the Roman Republic. The Greek city-states before the 4th century granted citizenship rights to their free population, and in Athens these rights were combined with a directly democratic form of government that was to have a long afterlife in political thought and history.
Study of politics
The study of politics is called political science, or politology. It comprises numerous subfields, including comparative politics, political economy, international relations, political philosophy, public administration, public policy, and political methodology. Furthermore, political science is related to, and draws upon, the fields of economics, law, sociology, history, philosophy, geography, psychology/psychiatry, anthropology and neurosciences.
Comparative politics is the science of comparison and teaching of different types of constitutions, political actors, legislature and associated fields, all of them from an intrastate perspective. International relations deals with the interaction between nation-states as well as intergovernmental and transnational organizations. Political philosophy is more concerned with contributions of various classical and contemporary thinkers and philosophers.
Political science is methodologically diverse and appropriates many methods originating in psychology, social research and cognitive neuroscience. Approaches include positivism, interpretivism, rational choice theory, behavioralism, structuralism, post-structuralism, realism, institutionalism, and pluralism. Political science, as one of the social sciences, uses methods and techniques that relate to the kinds of inquiries sought: primary sources such as historical documents and official records, secondary sources such as scholarly journal articles, survey research, statistical analysis, case studies, experimental research, and model building.
Aspects of politics
Political system
The political system defines the process for making official government decisions. It is usually compared to the legal system, economic system, cultural system, and other social systems. According to David Easton, "A political system can be designated as the interactions through which values are authoritatively allocated for a society". [39] Each political system is embedded in a society with its own political culture, and they in turn shape their societies through public policy. The interactions between different political systems are the basis for global politics.
Political culture
Political culture describes how culture impacts politics. Every political system is embedded in a particular political culture.[40] Lucian Pye's definition is that "Political culture is the set of attitudes, beliefs, and sentiments, which give order and meaning to a political process and which provide the underlying assumptions and rules that govern behavior in the political system".[41]
Trust is a major factor in political culture, as it's level determines the capacity of the state to function.[42] Postmaterialism is the degree to which a political culture is concerned with issues which are not of immediate physical or material concern, such as human rights and environmentalism.[43] Religion has also an impact on political culture.[42]
Forms of government
Forms of government can be classified by several ways. The source of power determines the difference between democracies, oligarchies, and autocracies. In terms of the structure of power, there are monarchies (including constitutional monarchies) and republics (usually presidential, semi-presidential, or parliamentary). In terms of level of vertical integration, they can be divided into (from least to most integrated) confederations, federations, and unitary states.
In a democracy, political legitimacy is based on popular sovereignty. Forms of democracy include representative democracy, direct democracy, and demarchy. These are separated by the way decisions are made, whether by elected representatives, referenda, or by citizen juries. Democracies can be either republics or constitutional monarchies.
Oligarchy is a power structure where a minority rules. These may be in the form of anocracy, aristocracy, ergatocracy, geniocracy, gerontocracy, kakistocracy, kleptocracy, meritocracy, noocracy, particracy, plutocracy, stratocracy, technocracy, theocracy or timocracy.
Autocracies are either dictatorships (including military dictatorships) or absolute monrachies.
A federation (also known as a federal state) is a political entity characterized by a union of partially self-governing provinces, states, or other regions under a central federal government (federalism). In a federation, the self-governing status of the component states, as well as the division of power between them and the central government, is typically constitutionally entrenched and may not be altered by a unilateral decision of either party, the states or the federal political body. Federations were formed first in Switzerland, then in the United States in 1776, in Canada in 1867 and in Germany in 1871 and in 1901, Australia. Compared to a federation, a confederation has less centralized power.
The state
All the above forms of government are variations of the same basic polity, the sovereign state. The state has been defined by Max Weber as a political entity that has monopoly on violence within its territory, while the Montevideo Convention holds that states need to have a defined territory; a permanent population; a government; and a capacity to enter into international relations.
A stateless society is a society that is not governed by a state.[44] In stateless societies, there is little concentration of authority; most positions of authority that do exist are very limited in power and are generally not permanently held positions; and social bodies that resolve disputes through predefined rules tend to be small.[45] Stateless societies are highly variable in economic organization and cultural practices.[46]
While stateless societies were the norm in human prehistory, few stateless societies exist today; almost the entire global population resides within the jurisdiction of a sovereign state. In some regions nominal state authorities may be very weak and wield little or no actual power. Over the course of history most stateless peoples have been integrated into the state-based societies around them.[47]
Some political philosophies consider the state undesirable, and thus consider the formation of a stateless society a goal to be achieved. A central tenet of anarchism is the advocacy of society without states.[48][49] The type of society sought for varies significantly between anarchist schools of thought, ranging from extreme individualism to complete collectivism.[50] In Marxism, Marx's theory of the state considers that in a post-capitalist society the state, an undesirable institution, would be unnecessary and wither away.[51] A related concept is that of stateless communism, a phrase sometimes used to describe Marx's anticipated post-capitalist society.
Political institutions
Constitutions
Constitutions are written documents that specify and limit the powers of the different branches of government. Although a constitution is a written document, there is also an unwritten constitution. The unwritten constitution is continually being written by the legislative and judiciary branch of government; this is just one of those cases in which the nature of the circumstances determines the form of government that is most appropriate.[52] England did set the fashion of written constitutions during the Civil War but after the Restoration abandoned them to be taken up later by the American Colonies after their emancipation and then France after the Revolution and the rest of Europe including the European colonies.
Constitutions often set out separation of powers, dividing the government into the executive, the legislature, and the judiciary (together referred to as the trias politica), in order to achieve checks and balances within the state. Additional independent branches may also be created, including civil service commissions, election commissions, and supreme audit institutions.
Political parties
A political party is a political organization that typically seeks to attain and maintain political power within government, usually by participating in electoral campaigns, educational outreach or protest actions. Parties often espouse an expressed ideology or vision bolstered by a written platform with specific goals, forming a coalition among disparate interests.[53]
Political parties within a particular political system together form the party system. This may be a multiparty system, a two-party system, a dominant-party system, or a one-party system, depending on the level of pluralism. This is affected by characteristics of the political system, including its electoral system. According to Duverger's law, first-past-the-post systems are likely to lead to two-party systems, while proportional representation systems are more likely to create a multiparty system.
Global politics
Global politics include different practices of political globalization in relation to questions of social power: from global patterns of governance to issues of globalizing conflict. The 20th century witnessed the outcome of two world wars and not only the rise and fall of the Third Reich but also the rise and relative fall of communism. The development of the atomic bomb gave the United States a more rapid end to its conflict in Japan in World War II. Later, the hydrogen bomb became the ultimate weapon of mass destruction.
Global politics also concerns the rise of global and international organizations. The United Nations has served as a forum for peace in a world threatened by nuclear war, "The invention of nuclear and space weapons has made war unacceptable as an instrument for achieving political ends."[54] Although an all-out final nuclear holocaust is radically undesirable for man, "nuclear blackmail" comes into question not only on the issue of world peace but also on the issue of national sovereignty.[55] On a Sunday in 1962, the world stood still at the brink of nuclear war during the October Cuban Missile Crisis from the implementation of U.S. vs Soviet Union nuclear blackmail policy.[56]
After the Soviet Union collapsed in December of 1991 the world moved from being bi-polar to being uni-polar with United States firmly ahead. However this lead has been continuously shrinking in the 21st Century with the rapid economic growth of China threatening the current American hegemony. Other world powers such as India and a resurgent Russia are also threatening America's position as the leader of the world.[57]
According to political science professor Paul James, global politics is affected by values: norms of human rights, ideas of human development, and beliefs such as cosmopolitanism about how we should relate to each:[58]
Cosmopolitanism can be defined as a global politics that, firstly, projects a sociality of common political engagement among all human beings across the globe, and, secondly, suggests that this sociality should be either ethically or organizationally privileged over other forms of sociality.
Political corruption
William Pitt the Elder (1770), speaking before the British House of Lords on January 9th, stated that "unlimited power is apt to corrupt the minds of those who possess it."[59] This was echoed more famously by John Dalberg-Acton (1887) over a century later: "Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely."[60]
Political corruption is the use of legislated powers by government officials for illegitimate private gain. Misuse of government power for other purposes, such as repression of political opponents and general police brutality, is not considered political corruption. Neither are illegal acts by private persons or corporations not directly involved with the government. An illegal act by an officeholder constitutes political corruption only if the act is directly related to their official duties and/or power.[61] The corruption in third World dictatorships is usually more blatant. For example, government cronies may be given exclusive right to make arbitrage profit by exploiting a fixed rate mechanism in government currency. In democracies corruption is often more indirect. Trade union leaders may be given priority in housing queues, giving them indirectly a worth of millions.[62]
Forms of corruption vary, but include corruption, extortion, cronyism, nepotism, patronage, graft, and embezzlement. While corruption may facilitate criminal enterprise it may be legal but considered immoral.[63] Worldwide, bribery alone is estimated to involve over US$1 trillion annually.[64] A state of unrestrained political corruption is known as a kleptocracy, literally meaning "rule by thieves."[65]
Political ideas
Equality
Equality is a state of affairs in which all people within a specific society or isolated group have the same status in possibly all respects, possibly including civil rights, freedom of speech, property rights and equal access to certain social goods and social services. However, it may also include health equality, economic equality and other social securities. Social equality requires the absence of legally enforced social class or caste boundaries and the absence of discrimination motivated by an inalienable part of a person's identity. For example, sex, gender, ethnicity, age, sexual orientation, origin, caste or class, income or property, language, religion, convictions, opinions, health or disability must absolutely not result in unequal treatment under the law and should not reduce opportunities unjustifiably.
Left–right spectrum
Political analysts and politicians divide politics into left wing and right wing politics, often also using the idea of center politics as a middle path of policy between the right and left. This classification is comparatively recent (it was not used by Aristotle or Hobbes, for instance), and dates from the French Revolution era, when those members of the National Assembly who supported the republic, the common people and a secular society sat on the left and supporters of the monarchy, aristocratic privilege and the Church sat on the right.[74]
The meanings behind the labels have become more complicated over the years. A particularly influential event was the publication of the Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in 1848. The Manifesto suggested a course of action for a proletarian revolution to overthrow the bourgeois society and abolish private property, in the belief that this would lead to a classless and stateless society.[75][76][page needed]
The meaning of left-wing and right-wing varies considerably between different countries and at different times, but generally speaking, it can be said that the right wing often values tradition and inequality while the left wing often values progress and egalitarianism, with the center seeking a balance between the two such as with social democracy, libertarianism or regulated capitalism.[77]
According to Norberto Bobbio, one of the major exponents of this distinction, the Left believes in attempting to eradicate social inequality—believing it to be unethical or unnatural[78] while the Right regards most social inequality as the result of ineradicable natural inequalities, and sees attempts to enforce social equality as utopian or authoritarian.[79] Some ideologies, notably Christian Democracy, claim to combine left and right wing politics; according to Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood, "In terms of ideology, Christian Democracy has incorporated many of the views held by liberals, conservatives and socialists within a wider framework of moral and Christian principles."[80] Movements which claim or formerly claimed to be above the left-right divide include Fascist Terza Posizione economic politics in Italy and Peronism in Argentina.[81][82]
Freedom
Political freedom (also known as political autonomy or political agency) is a central concept in political thought and one of the most important features of democratic societies. Political freedom was described as freedom from oppression or coercion, the absence of disabling conditions for an individual and the fulfillment of enabling conditions, or the absence of life conditions of compulsion, e.g. economic compulsion, in a society. Although political freedom is often interpreted negatively as the freedom from unreasonable external constraints on action, it can also refer to the positive exercise of rights, capacities and possibilities for action and the exercise of social or group rights.
Authoritarianism and libertarianism
Authoritarianism and libertarianism disagree the amount of individual freedom each person possesses in that society relative to the state. One author describes authoritarian political systems as those where "individual rights and goals are subjugated to group goals, expectations and conformities,"[83] while libertarians generally oppose the state and hold the individual as sovereign. In their purest form, libertarians are anarchists,[84] who argue for the total abolition of the state, of political parties and of other political entities, while the purest authoritarians are, by definition, totalitarians who support state control over all aspects of society.[85]
For instance, classical liberalism (also known as laissez-faire liberalism)[86] is a doctrine stressing individual freedom and limited government. This includes the importance of human rationality, individual property rights, free markets, natural rights, the protection of civil liberties, constitutional limitation of government, and individual freedom from restraint as exemplified in the writings of John Locke, Adam Smith, David Hume, David Ricardo, Voltaire, Montesquieu and others. According to the libertarian Institute for Humane Studies, "the libertarian, or 'classical liberal,' perspective is that individual well-being, prosperity, and social harmony are fostered by 'as much liberty as possible' and 'as little government as necessary.'"[87] For anarchist political philosopher L. Susan Brown (1993), "liberalism and anarchism are two political philosophies that are fundamentally concerned with individual freedom yet differ from one another in very distinct ways. Anarchism shares with liberalism a radical commitment to individual freedom while rejecting liberalism's competitive property relations."[88]
See also
- Index of law articles
- Index of politics articles – alphabetical list of political subjects
- List of politics awards
- List of years in politics
- Outline of law
- Outline of political science – structured list of political topics, arranged by subject area
- Political lists – lists of political topics
- Politics of present-day states
- List of political ideologies
References
Notes
Citations
- ^ a b Hague, Rod; Harrop, Martin (2013). Comparative Government and Politics: An Introduction. Macmillan International Higher Education. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-137-31786-5. Archived from the original on 7 July 2019. Retrieved 25 February 2018.
- ^ "Political". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on 25 February 2018.
- ^ William A., Joseph (2014). Politics in China: An Introduction (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-19-938483-9. Archived from the original on 2 July 2019. Retrieved 25 February 2018.
- ^ Birkland, Thomas A. (2015). Introduction to the Policy Process: Theories, Concepts, and Models of Public Policy Making (3rd ed.). Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-7656-2731-5. Archived from the original on 8 July 2019. Retrieved 25 February 2018.
- ^ "God save our lord the king" (sheet music) The Gentleman's Magazine, 15 October 1745.
- ^ Johnston, Alexander; Woodburn, James Albert (1903) [1903]. American Orations: V. The Anti-Slavery Struggle. G. P. Putnam and Sons. p. 233 – via Internet Archive.
- ^ Hammarlund, Bo (1985). Politik utan partier: studier i Sveriges politiska liv 1726-1727. Almqvist & Wiksell International. p. 8. Archived from the original on 3 July 2019. Retrieved 25 February 2018.
- ^ P. Brady, Linda (2017). The Politics of Negotiation: America's Dealings with Allies, Adversaries, and Friends. University of North Carolina Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-1-4696-3960-4. Archived from the original on 2 July 2019. Retrieved 25 February 2018.
- ^ Hawkesworth, Mary; Kogan, Maurice (2013). Encyclopedia of Government and Politics: 2-volume Set. London: Routledge. p. 299. ISBN 978-1-136-91332-7. Archived from the original on 2 July 2019. Retrieved 25 February 2018.
- ^ Taylor, Steven L. (2012). 30-Second Politics: The 50 most thought-provoking ideas in politics, each explained in half a minute. Icon Books Limited. p. 130. ISBN 978-1-84831-427-6. Archived from the original on 6 July 2019. Retrieved 25 February 2018.
- ^ L. Blanton, Shannon; Kegley, Charles W. (2016). World Politics: Trend and Transformation, 2016–2017. Cengage Learning. p. 199. ISBN 978-1-305-50487-5. Archived from the original on 2 July 2019. Retrieved 26 February 2018.
- ^ Political System and Change: A World Politics Reader. Princeton University Press. 1986. JSTOR j.ctt7ztn7s.
- ^ Buhler, C. F., ed. 1961 [1941]. The Dictes and Sayings of the Philosophers. London: Early English Text Society, Original Series No. 211.
- ^ Lewis, Charlton T.; Short, Charles. "A Latin Dictionary". Perseus Digital Library. Tufts University. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 19 February 2016.
- ^ Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. "A Greek-English Lexicon". Perseus Digital Library. Tufts Library. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 19 February 2016.
- ^ Lasswell, Harold D. (Harold Dwight), 1902-1978. ([1963, ©1958]). Politics: who gets what, when how. : With postscript (1958). World. OCLC 61585455.
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(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Easton, David, 1917- (1981). The political system : an inquiry into the state of political science. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-18017-4. OCLC 781301164.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Lenin, V. I. (1965). Collected works. September 1903-December 1904. OCLC 929381958.
- ^ Crick, Bernard, 1929-2008. ([1972]). In defence of politics. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-12064-3. OCLC 575753.
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(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Leftwich, Adrian. (2004). What is politics? : the activity and its study. Polity. ISBN 0-7456-3055-3. OCLC 1044115261.
- ^ What is politics? : the activity and its study. Leftwich, Adrian. Oxford: Polity. 2004. pp. 14–15. ISBN 0-7456-3055-3. OCLC 56383081.
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: CS1 maint: others (link) - ^ What is politics? : the activity and its study. Leftwich, Adrian. Oxford: Polity. 2004. p. 23. ISBN 0-7456-3055-3. OCLC 56383081.
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: CS1 maint: others (link) - ^ What is politics? : the activity and its study. Leftwich, Adrian. Oxford: Polity. 2004. p. 119. ISBN 0-7456-3055-3. OCLC 56383081.
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: CS1 maint: others (link) - ^ Dahl, Robert A., 1915-2014. (2003). Modern political analysis. Prentice Hall. pp. 1–11. ISBN 0-13-049702-9. OCLC 49611149.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Morlino, Leonardo. (2017). Political science. Sage Publications Inc. p. 2. ISBN 1-4129-6213-7. OCLC 951226897.
- ^ Leftwich, Adrian. (2004). What is politics? : the activity and its study. Polity. p. 73. ISBN 0-7456-3055-3. OCLC 1044115261.
- ^ Leftwich, Adrian. (2004). What is politics? : the activity and its study. Polity. p. 16. ISBN 0-7456-3055-3. OCLC 1044115261.
- ^ Morlino, Leonardo. (2017). Political science. Sage Publications Inc. p. 3. ISBN 1-4129-6213-7. OCLC 951226897.
- ^ Waal, Frans de, (1948- ...)., Auteur. (2007). Chimpanzee politics power and sex among apes. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-8656-0. OCLC 493546705.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Fukuyama, Francis. (2012). The origins of political order : from prehuman times to the French Revolution. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-374-53322-9. OCLC 1082411117.
- ^ Spencer, Charles S.; Redmond, Elsa M. (15 September 2004). "Primary State Formation in Mesoamerica". Annual Review of Anthropology. 33 (1): 173–199. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143823. ISSN 0084-6570.
- ^ Carneiro, Robert L. (21 August 1970). "A Theory of the Origin of the State: Traditional theories of state origins are considered and rejected in favor of a new ecological hypothesis". Science. 169 (3947): 733–738. doi:10.1126/science.169.3947.733. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17820299.
- ^ Origins of the state : the anthropology of political evolution. Internet Archive. Philadelphia : Institute for the Study of Human Issues. 1978. p. 30.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: others (link) - ^ Carneiro, Robert L. (21 August 1970). "A Theory of the Origin of the State: Traditional theories of state origins are considered and rejected in favor of a new ecological hypothesis". Science. 169 (3947): 733–738. doi:10.1126/science.169.3947.733. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17820299.
- ^ Carneiro, Robert L. (21 August 1970). "A Theory of the Origin of the State: Traditional theories of state origins are considered and rejected in favor of a new ecological hypothesis". Science. 169 (3947): 733–738. doi:10.1126/science.169.3947.733. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17820299.
- ^ a b Daniel, Glyn (2003) [1968]. The First Civilizations: The Archaeology of their Origins. New York: Phoenix Press. xiii. ISBN 1-84212-500-1.
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suggested) (help) - ^ Daniel, Glyn (2003) [1968]. The First Civilizations: The Archaeology of their Origins. New York: Phoenix Press. pp. 9–11. ISBN 1-84212-500-1.
- ^ Nelson, B.; Nelson, Brian R. (16 March 2006). The Making of the Modern State: A Theoretical Evolution. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-4039-7189-0.
- ^ Easton, David. (1971). The political system : an inquiry into the state of political science. Knopf. OCLC 470276419.
- ^ Morlino, Leonardo (2017). Political science : a global perspective. Berg-Schlosser, Dirk., Badie, Bertrand. London, England. pp. 64–74. ISBN 978-1-5264-1303-1. OCLC 1124515503.
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: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Morlino, Leonardo (2017). Political science : a global perspective. Berg-Schlosser, Dirk., Badie, Bertrand. London, England. pp. 64–74. ISBN 978-1-5264-1303-1. OCLC 1124515503.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ a b Hague, Rod. (14 October 2017). Political science : a comparative introduction. pp. 200–214. ISBN 978-1-137-60123-0. OCLC 970345358.
- ^ Morlino, Leonardo (2017). Political science : a global perspective. Berg-Schlosser, Dirk., Badie, Bertrand. London, England. pp. 64–74. ISBN 978-1-5264-1303-1. OCLC 1124515503.
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: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ "Anarchism". The Shorter Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2005. p. 14.
Anarchism is the view that a society without the state, or government, is both possible and desirable.
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Anarchism is the view that a society without the state, or government, is both possible and desirable.
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- ^ Slevin, Carl (2003). "Anarchism". In McLean, Iain; McMillan, Alistair (eds.). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics. Oxford University Press.
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State interference in social relations becomes, in one domain after another, superfluous, and then dies out of itself; the government of persons is replaced by the administration of things, and by the conduct of processes of production. The State is not "abolished". It dies out...Socialized production upon a predetermined plan becomes henceforth possible. The development of production makes the existence of different classes of society thenceforth an anachronism. In proportion as anarchy in social production vanishes, the political authority of the State dies out. Man, at last the master of his own form of social organization, becomes at the same time the lord over Nature, his own master—free.
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Further reading
- Connolly, William (1981). Appearance and Reality in Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- James, Raul; Soguk, Nevzat (2014). Globalization and Politics, Vol. 1: Global Political and Legal Governance. London: Sage Publications. Retrieved 19 February 2016.
- Ryan, Alan: On Politics: A History of Political Thought from Herodotus to the Present. London: Allen Lane, 2012. ISBN 978-0-7139-9364-6