Template:Ottoman Succession box |- style="text-align: center;" |- style="text-align:center;"
|style="width:30%;" rowspan="1"|Preceded by
| style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"| Sultan
1520–66
| style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"| Succeeded by
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|style="width:30%;" rowspan="1"|Preceded by
| style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"| Caliph
1520–66
| style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"| Succeeded by
|- |}
Suleiman I (Ottoman:سليمان Sulaymān, Turkish: Süleyman; the long name is Kanuni Sultan Süleyman in Turkish) (November 6, 1494 – September 5/6, 1566), was the tenth Sultan from the House of Osman of the Ottoman Empire, and its longest-serving, reigning from 1520 to 1566. Under his leadership, the Ottoman Empire reached its zenith and became a world power, and Suleiman was considered one of the pre-eminent rulers of 16th-century Europe, a respected rival to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1519–56), Francis I of France (1515–47), Henry VIII of England (1509–47), Sigismund II of Poland (1548–72), and Ivan IV of Russia (1530–84).
Suleiman personally led Ottoman armies to conquer Belgrade, Rhodes, and most of Hungary, besieged Vienna, and annexed huge territories of North Africa as far west as Morocco and most of the Middle East. Briefly, Ottomans achieved naval dominance in the Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea, and Persian Gulf, and the empire continued to expand for a century after his death.
Within the empire, Suleiman was known as a fair ruler and an opponent of corruption. He was a great patron of artists and philosophers, and was noted as one of the greatest Islamic poets, as well as an accomplished goldsmith. He is known in the West as Suleiman the Magnificent and in the Islamic world as the Lawgiver (in Turkish Kanuni; Template:Lang-ar, al-Qānūnī), a nickname stemming from his complete reconstruction of the Ottoman legal system.
Early life
Suleiman was born in Trabzon in modern day Turkey, probably on November 6 1491[1]. At the age of seven he was sent to study science, history, literature, theology, and military tactics in the schools of the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul, and as a young man maintained a close friendship with Pargalı İbrahim Pasha, a slave who would become one of his most trusted advisors.[2]
From the age of seventeen, a young Suleiman was appointed the governor of first Istanbul, then Sarukhan (Manisa) with a brief tenure at Edirne (Adrianople)[3]. It was in Manisa, where he stayed until his ascendancy to the throne, that Suleiman became proficient in matters of administrative affairs. Racked by banditry, Suleiman restored law and order to the province and in the process acquired the necessary legislative experience which would later see him named Kanuni, or the Law Giver.
During the rule of his father, Selim I (1512–20), the Ottoman Empire destroyed the rival Mamluk Sultanate, which led to the annexation of Syria, Palestine and Egypt, and conquered the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. Selim claimed the title of the Khadim ul Haremeyn, "The Servant of The Two Holy Shrines", (the Great Mosque in Mecca and the Mosque of the Prophet in Medina, the holiest places in Islam), and also claimed to be the Caliph, the "guardian of Islam" considered to be the chief civil and religious ruler of all Islam, both Shi'ite and Sunni. Selim also subjugated Persia, whose ruler Shah Ismail (1501–24) also claimed to be the Caliph, and captured Egypt along with Al-Mutawakkil III (1509–17), the last Caliph of the Abbasid dynasty, enabling Selim to acquire the emblems of the Caliph, the sword and the mantle of the Prophet of Islam, Muhammad.
Thus, at the age of 26, upon the death of his father, Suleiman ruled a substantially more powerful Empire and Sultanate, which he would continue to expand until his death in 1566.
Military Achievements
Conquests in Europe
Upon succeeding his father, Suleiman began a series of military conquests, first putting down a revolt led by the Ottoman-appointed governor of Damascus in 1521. Suleiman soon made preparations for the conquest of Belgrade from The Kingdom of Hungary - something Mehmed II had failed to achieve - its capture vital in eliminating the Hungarians who following the collapse of the Serbs, Bulgars and Byzantines, remained the only formidable force blocking further gains in the Balkans. Suleiman encircled Belgrade and began a series of heavy bombardment from an island in the Danube. With a garisson of only seven hundred men, and receiving no aid from Hungary, Belgrade fell in August 1521.[4]
News of the conquest of one Christendoms major strongholds spread fear across Europe. As the ambassador of the Holy Roman Empire to Istanbul was to note, "The capture of Belgrade was at the origin of the dramatic events which engulfed Hungary. It led to the death of King Lewis, the capture of Buda, the occupation of Transylvania, the ruin of a flourishing kingdom and the fear of neighbouring nations that they would suffer the same fate..." [5]
The road to Hungary and Austria now lay open, however Suleiman first diverted his attention to the Eastern Mediterranean and the island of Rhodes whose proxmitiy to Asia Minor and the Levant posed a perennial problem to Ottoman interests. In the summer of 1522, taking advantage of the navy inherited from his father, Suleiman dispatched an armada of some four hundred ships whilst leading an army of 100,000 personally across Asia Minor to a point opposite the island.[6] Following a siege of five months with brutal encounters, Rhodes capitulated and Suleiman allowed the Knights of St.John to depart, forming their new base in Malta.
As relations between Hungary and the Ottoman Empire deteriorated, Suleiman resumed his campaign in Eastern Europe and on August 29 1526 defeated Louis II of Hungary (1516–26) at the Battle of Mohács. In its wake, Hungarian resistance collapsed and the Ottoman Empire became the preeminent power in Eastern Europe for a further two centuries.[7]. Upon encountering the lifeless body of King Louis, Suleiman is said to have lamented "I came in arms against him but it was not my wish that he should be thus cut off while he scarcely tasted the sweets of life and royalty.". (Severy, p. 580)[8]
Central authority collapsed under Ottoman attacks and a power struggle ensued, with some Hungarian nobles proposing that Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria (1519–64), who was ruler of neighbouring Austria and tied to Louis II's family by marriage, be King of Hungary, citing previous agreements that the Habsburgs would take the Hungarian throne if Louis died without heirs. However, other nobles turned to the nobleman John Zápolya, who was supported by Suleiman, and who remained unrecognized by the Christian powers of Europe. A three-sided conflict ensued as Ferdinand moved to assert his rule over as much of the Hungarian kingdom as he could, resulting in a three-way partition of the Kingdom by 1541: Suleiman claimed most of present-day Hungary, known as the Great Alföld, for the Ottoman Empire, and installed Zápolya's family as rulers of the independent principality of Transylvania, a vassal state of the Empire. Ferdinand claimed "Royal Hungary", including present-day Slovakia, western Croatia, and adjacent territories, temporarily fixing the border between the Habsburgs and the Ottomans.
Under Charles V and his brother Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria, the Habsburgs occupied Buda and took Hungary. Thus in 1529 Suleiman once again marched through the valley of the Danube and reoccupied Buda and in the following Autumn laid sige to Vienna. It was to be the Ottoman Empires most ambitious expedition and the apogee of its drive towards the West. With a reinforced garisson of 20,000 men, the Austrians would inflict upon Suleiman his first defeat and sow the seeds of a bitter Ottoman-Hapsburg rivalry until the 20th century.[9] A second attempt to conquer Vienna failed in 1532, with Suleiman returning before reaching Vienna. In both cases, the Ottoman army was plauged by bad weather (forced to leave behind essential siege equipment of the kind used to conquer Rhodes) and struggled under the overstretched supply lines.[10]
Regardless of the defeat, Suleiman had assured the Ottoman Empire a powerful role in the political landscape of Europe.
Conquests in Middle East and North Africa
As Suleiman stabilised his European frontiers, he now turned his attention to the ever present threat posed by the Shi'a Safavid dynasty of Persia (Iran). Two events in particular were to precipitate a recurrence of tensions. Firstly Shah Tahmasp had the Baghdad governor loyal to Suleiman killed and replaced with an adherent of the Shah, and secondly the governor of Bitlis had defected and sworn allegiance to Safavids.[11]. Thus in 1533 Suleiman ordered his Grand Vizier Ibrahim Pasha to lead an army into Asia where he retook Bitlis and occupied Tabriz without resistance. Having joined Ibrahim in 1534, Suleiman made a push towards Persia, only to find the Shah sacrificing territoriy instead of facing a pitched battle, resorting to a harassment of the Ottoman army as it proceeded along the harsh interior.[12] The following year Suleiman and Ibrahim made a grand entrance into Baghdad, with its commander surrendering the city, cementing Suleiman as the leader of the Islamic world and the legitimate successor to the Abbasid Caliphs.[13]
Attempting to defeat the Shah once and for all, Suleiman embarked upon a second campaign between 1548–1549. Just as in the previous attempt, Shah Tahmasp I avoided confrontation with the Ottoman army and instead chose to retreat, torching Azerbaijan in the process and exposing the Ottoman army to the harsh winter of the Caucasus.[14] Suleiman abandoned the campaign with temporary Ottoman gains in Tabriz and Azerbaijan, and a lasting presence in the province of Van, and some forts in Georgia.[15]
In 1553, Suleiman began his third and final campaign against the Shah. Having initially lossed territories in Erzurum to the Shah's son, Suleiman retaliated by recapturing Erzurum, crossing the Upper Euphrates and laying waste to parts of Persia. The Shahs army continued its strategy of avoiding the Ottomans leading to a stalemate from which neither army made any considerable gain. In 1554 a settlement was signed which was to conclude Suleimans Asiatic campaigns, they included the return of Tabriz, but secured Baghdad, lower Mesopotamia, the mouhts of the river Euphrates and Tigris, as well as part of the Persian Gulf,[16] the Shah also promsied to cease all raids into Ottoman territority.[17]
East of Morrocco, huge territories of North Africa were annexed. The Barbary States of Tripolitania, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco became autonomous provinces of the Empire, and served as the leading edge of Suleiman's conflict with Charles V, whose attempt to drive out the Turks failed in 1541. The piracy carried on thereafter by the Barbary pirates of North Africa remained part of the wars against Spain, and the Ottoman expansion was associated with naval dominance for a short period in the Mediterranean Sea.
Ottoman navies also controlled the Red Sea, and held the Persian Gulf until 1554, when their ships were defeated by the navy of the Portuguese Empire. The Portuguese would continue to contest Suleiman I's forces for control of Aden, in present-day Yemen.
Tunis
In 1533 Khair ad Din known to Europeans as Barbarossa, was made Admiral-in-Chief of the Ottoman navies which were actively fighting the Spanish navy. In 1535 the Habsburg Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V (Charles I of Spain, ruled 1516–56)) won an important victory against the Ottomans at Tunis, but in 1536 Francis I of France allied himself with Suleiman against Charles. In 1538, the Spanish fleet was defeated at the Battle of Preveza by Barbarossa, securing the eastern Mediterranean for the Turks for 33 years (1538–71).
Francis I was persuaded to sign a peace treaty with Charles V in 1538, however he again allied himself with the Suleiman in 1542. In 1543 Charles allied himself with Henry VIII of England and forced Francis to sign the Truce of Crepy-en-Laonnois. Charles signed a humilating treaty with Suleiman to gain some respite from the huge expenses of the war.
In 1544, when Spain declared war on France, the French King Francis asked for help from Suleiman. He then sent a fleet headed by Barbarossa who was victorious over the Spaniards, and managed to retake Naples from them. Suleiman bestowed on him the title of Beyler Bey (Commander of Commanders). One result of the alliance was the fierce sea duel between Dragut and Andrea Doria, which left the northern Mediterranean European and the southern Mediterranean in Islamic hands.[18]
Malta, a turning point
When the Knights Hospitallers were re-established as the Knights of Malta in 1530, their actions against Muslim navies quickly drew the ire of the Ottomans, who assembled another massive army in order to dislodge the Knights from Malta. In 1565 they invaded, starting the Great Siege of Malta, which began on May 18 and lasted until September 8, and is portrayed vividly in the frescoes of Matteo Perez d'Aleccio in the Hall of St. Michael and St. George. At first the battle looked to be a repeat of the one on Rhodes, with most of the cities destroyed and about half the Knights killed in battle, but a relief force from Spain entered the battle, resulting in the loss of 30,000 Ottoman troops[citation needed].
After this Suleiman turned his eye to Hungary again. He died of a stroke during the Battle of Szigetvár in Szigetvár, Hungary, (1566, September 5 or 6).
The lawgiver
"The primacy of Suleiman as a law-giver is at the foundation of his place in Islamic history and world view.".[19] The Ottomans called Suleiman Kanuni, or "The Lawgiver," and the inscription on the Süleymaniye Mosque constructed for him, describes him as Nashiru kawanin al-Sultaniyye, or "Propagator of the Sultanic Laws", based on Suleiman's revision and application of Sultanic "kanun" laws used in situations not explicitly covered under Islamic Shari'ah: "In Islamic tradition, if a case fell outside the parameters of the Shari'ah, then a judgement or rule in the case could be arrived at through analogy with rules or cases that are covered by the Shari'ah... [a] method of juridical thinking... accepted by the most liberal school of Shari'ah, Hanifism", which "dominated Ottoman law".[20] After Suleiman the Kanun laws attained their final form, and the code of laws became known as the kanun-i Osmanlı, the "Ottoman laws".
Justice and equity
Suleiman was renowned as a just and fair ruler, choosing his subordinates according to merit rather than social status or popularity. The Austrian Ambassador, Ghiselain de Busbecq, wrote of him, "In making his appointments, the Sultan pays no regard to any pretensions on the score of wealth or rank, nor does he take into consideration recommendations or popularity; he considers each case on its own merits, and examines carefully into the character, ability and disposition of the man whose promotion is in question.".[21]
In 1553 Suleiman declared a law to stop the persecution of Jews via Blood libels, decreeing that all accusations of the slaughter of Christian children by Jews be referred to the Imperial Divan where the courts would expose these lies. The preparation of the law included the input of Moses Hamon, a favorite doctor and dentist of the Sultan. Another symbol of the Muslim-Jewish tolerance was the building of a synagogue and mosque which was built by Suleiman.[22]
Cultural Achievements
Under Suleiman's rule, hundreds of imperial artistic societies (called the Ehl-i Hiref, "Community of the Talented") were administered at the Imperial seat, the Topkapı Palace.
After an apprenticeship, artists and craftsmen could advance in rank within their field and were paid commensurate wages in quarterly annual installments. Payroll registers that survive testify to the breadth of Suleiman's patronage of the arts: "The earliest document, drawn up in 1526, lists 40 societies with over 600 members; by the 17th century the number of societies had increased and their membership had risen to some 2,000. In addition to the artists employed in the imperial societies, in Istanbul, like all the major centers of the empire, had diverse guilds of artisans which catered to both domestic and foreign needs."[23]
The Poet
British historian E.J.W. Gibb wrote that "at no time, even in Turkey, was greater encouragement given to poetry than during the reign of this Sultan."[24]
Some of Suleiman's verses, composed under the nom de plume "Muhibbi", have become Turkish proverbs, including the well-known "Everyone aims at the same meaning, but many are the versions of the story," and "In this world a spell of good health is the best state.".[25] He wrote in Turkish, Persian and Arabic.
- "The people think of wealth and power as the greatest fate,
- But in this world a spell of health is the best state.
- What men call sovereignty is a wordly strife and constant war;
- Worship of God is the highest throne, the happiest of all estate's."[26]
Islamic calligraphy
Diwani is a calligraphic variety of Arabic script, a cursive style developed by Housam Roumi that reached the height of its popularity under Suleiman's reign. It was used in the Ottoman divan for the writing of all royal decrees, endowments, and resolutions, and was one of the secrets of the Sultan's palace: the rules of this script were not known to everyone, but confined to its masters and a few bright students.
Religious tolerance
Some Christian slaves in the Ottoman Empire under Suleiman rose to positions of great prominence. Ibrahim Pasha became Grand Vizier for thirteen years.
Suleiman continued the policy of religious tolerance toward Jews initiated by Bayezid II (1481–1512), who had welcomed Jews expelled from Spain in 1492 during the Spanish Inquisition.
In a letter to Pope Paul IV (1555–59) in 1556, Suleiman asked for the immediate release of the Ancona Marranos, who faced persecution after falling under Papal authority; Suleiman declared them to be Ottoman citizens. The Pope had no alternative but to release them, thus demonstrating the influence of the Ottoman Empire during his reign [27]. Suleiman also employed a Jewish personal physician, the Rabbi Moshe Hamon.[28]
In the city of Jerusalem, the rule of Suleiman and the following Ottoman Sultans brought an age of religious peace; Jews, Christians and Muslims enjoyed the freedom of religion that the Ottomans granted them and it was possible to find a synagogue, a church and a mosque in the same street. The city remained open to all three religions.
Relationship with Ibrahim Pasha
Pargalı İbrahim Pasha was the boyhood friend of Suleiman. As the Sultan's male favorite, he shared Suleiman's quarters and his tent while at home and on campaign. Suleiman made him the royal falconer, then promoted him to first officer of the Royal Bedchamber, which was most irregular. Eventually, Ibrahim Pasha became the Grand Vizier and commander-in-chief of all the armies.
There have been scholars that have suggested that the two men may have shared an intimate relationship, which is quite contrary to both Islam and traditional Turkish culture. Eventually Ibrahim may have become too close to the Sultan and may have attained too much power, because Suleiman eventually had him killed, presumably to keep him silent about the true nature of their relationship. This theory would fit with characteristics of Suleiman's personality. Ibrahim was Greek and was a convert to Islam. Suleiman repeatedly was attracted and infatuated with the foreign and the eccentric Roxelana, who was ethnically Slavic of Orthodox religion.
Relationship with Roxelana
Anastasia Lisovska, also known as Roxelana or Hürrem, a captured daughter of an Orthodox priest (from Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth), rose through the ranks of the Harem to become Suleiman's favorite wife, to the surprise of the Empire and the international community. Breaking with 300 years of Ottoman tradition, Suleiman married Roxelana in a formal ceremony, making her the first former slave to gain legitimacy as the Sultan's legal wife.
By her he had one daughter, Mihrimar (Mihrumâh), and the sons Mehmed (who died young), Selim (later Sultan Selim II (1566–74)), Bayezid and Cihangir (born physically disabled). He allowed her to remain with him at court for the rest of her life, despite another tradition that when imperial heirs became of age, they would be sent along with the imperial concubine who bore them to govern remote provinces of the Empire, never to return unless their progeny succeeded to the throne.
He composed this poem for Roxelana:
- "Throne of my lonely niche, my wealth, my love, my moonlight.
- My most sincere friend, my confidant, my very existence, my Sultan
- The most beautiful among the beautiful...
- My springtime, my merry faced love, my daytime, my sweetheart, laughing leaf...
- My plants, my sweet, my rose, the one only who does not distress me in this world...
- My Istanbul, my Caraman, the earth of my Anatolia
- My Badakhshan, my Baghdad and Khorasan
- My woman of the beautiful hair, my love of the slanted brow, my love of eyes full of mischief...
- I'll sing your praises always
- I, lover of the tormented heart, Muhibbi of the eyes full of tears, I am happy."[29]
Roxelana and the succession
Suleiman's son Mustafa, by his consort the Sultana "Rose of Spring", preceded Roxelana's children in the order of succession, and was supported by Pargalı İbrahim Pasha, who was by this time Suleiman's Grand Vizier. In power struggles apparently instigated by Roxelana, Suleiman had Ibrahim murdered and replaced with her son-in-law, Rustem Pasha. Later, Suleiman, apparently believing that Mustafa's popularity with the army threatened his own position, had Mustafa strangled.
Suleiman's son Bayezid suppressed a major revolt in Macedonia and Thrace, led by a man purporting to be Suleiman's son Mustafa: "This Mustafa gathered around him discontented holders of timars (military fiefs), peasants, and members of the religious establishment unhappy with the dominance of the devshirme (slave) class in Istanbul."[30] The pretender was executed after the revolt failed.
In anticipation of Suleiman's death, his sons by Roxelana, Selim and Bayezid, engaged in a series of battles for the succession, beginning in 1559, in part due to the Ottoman practice of fratricide of rival successors, in which one of the two would be ordered strangled. The turmoil that followed led Suleiman to order the death of Bayezid on September 25 1561, after he was repatriated by the Shah of Persia after having fled there for protection, leaving Suleiman's son Selim the heir presumptive.
Suleiman's Grand Vizier Mehmed Sokollu was a Serbian convert from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Suleiman relinquished more power to him as he grew older. After Suleiman's death in 1566, Mehmed continued Ottoman conquests and became the de-facto ruler of the Ottoman Empire, even while in service of Selim II.
Legacy
The Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul was built by the famed architect Mimar Sinan and was completed in 1557. Suleiman and Roxelana are buried in separate domed mausoleums attached to the mosque. He died in 1566, the night before victory at the Battle of Szigetvar, in Hungary.
At the time of his death, the major Muslim cities (Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem, Damascus, and Baghdad), many Balkan provinces (up to today's Austria), and most of North Africa were under the control of the empire.
Ottoman power continued to grow in the century following Suleiman I's death, until the resurgence of European powers curtailed the Sultanate's expansion in the aftermath of the Battle of Vienna in the late 17th century.
Style
Suleiman was called by many titles, and described himself in his writings as "Slave of God, powerful with the power of God, deputy of God on earth, obeying the commands of the Qur'an and enforcing them throughout the world, master of all lands, the shadow of God over all nations, Sultan of Sultans in all the lands of Persians and Arabs, the propagator of Sultanic laws (Nashiru kawanin al-Sultaniyye), the tenth Sultan of the Ottoman Khans, Sultan, son of Sultan, Suleiman Khan".
Or, "Slave of God, master of the world, I am Suleiman and my name is read in all the prayers in all the cities of Islam. I am the Shah of Baghdad and Iraq, Caesar of all the lands of Rome, and the Sultan of Egypt. I seized the Hungarian crown and gave it to the least of my slaves".
Or, "I am Sultan Suleiman Han, son of Sultan Selim Han, son of Sultan Bayezid Han. I am Suleiman. To the east I am the Lawgiver. To the west I am the Magnificent."
Or, as he introduced himself to Francis I, the king of France, in 1536: "I who am the Sultan of Sultans, the sovereign of sovereigns, the dispenser of crowns to the monarchs on the face of the earth, the shadow of God on earth, the Sultan and sovereign lord of the White Sea and of the Black Sea, of Rumelia and of Anatolia, of Karamania, of the land of Rum, of Zulkadria, of Diyarbekir, of Kurdistan, of Aizerbaijan, of Persia, of Damascus, of Aleppo, of Cairo, of Mecca, of Medina, of Jerusalem, of all Arabia, of Yemen and of many other lands which my noble forefathers and my glorious ancestors (may Allah light up their tombs!) conquered by the force of their arms and which my August Majesty has made subject to my flaming sword and my victorious blade, I, Sultan Suleiman Khan, son of Sultan Selim, son of Sultan Bayezid: To thee, who art Francis, King of the land of France..."
External links
References
- ^ André Clot, 1992. Suleiman the Magnificent: The Man, His Life, His epoch. Saqi books. p.25
- ^ http://www.ccds.charlotte.nc.us/History/MidEast/save/hope/hope.html
- ^ André Clot, 1992. Suleiman the Magnificent: The Man, His Life, His epoch. Saqi books. p.28
- ^ Colin Imber, 2002. The Ottoman Empire. Palgrave Macmillan. p.49
- ^ André Clot, 1992. Suleiman the Magnificent: The Man, His Life, His epoch. Saqi books. p.39
- ^ Kinross, P., 2002. The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire. Perennial. p.176
- ^ Kinross, P., 2002. The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire. Perennial. p.187
- ^ http://www.ccds.charlotte.nc.us/History/MidEast/04/embree/embree.htm
- ^ Colin Imber, 2002. The Ottoman Empire. Palgrave Macmillan. p.50
- ^ Subhi Labib, 1979. International Journal of Middle East Studies. The ere of Suleyman the Magnificent: Crisis of Orientation. Vol. 10, No. 4 p.444
- ^ Colin Imber, 2002. The Ottoman Empire. Palgrave Macmillan. p.51
- ^ Martin Sicker, 2000.The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna. Praeger/Greenwood. p.206
- ^ André Clot, 1992. Suleiman the Magnificent: The Man, His Life, His epoch. Saqi books. p.93
- ^ Martin Sicker, 2000.The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna. Praeger/Greenwood. p.206
- ^ http://www.bartleby.com/67/794.html
- ^ Kinross, P., 2002. The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire. Perennial. p.236
- ^ http://www.bartleby.com/67/795.html#c4p01959
- ^ http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/196402/.suleiman.the.lawgiver..htm
- ^ http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/OTTOMAN/SULEYMAN.HTM
- ^ http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/OTTOMAN/SULEYMAN.HTM
- ^ http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/196402/.suleiman.the.lawgiver..htm
- ^ Constantinople : City of the World's Desire, 1453-1924- Phillip Mansel
- ^ http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198704/the.golden.age.of.ottoman.art.htm
- ^ http://www.byegm.gov.tr/yayinlarimiz/NEWSPOT/1999/JulyAug/N6.htm
- ^ http://www.byegm.gov.tr/yayinlarimiz/NEWSPOT/1999/JulyAug/N6.htm
- ^ Constantinople : City of the World's Desire, 1453-1924-Phillip Mansel pg 84
- ^ http://turizmforumu.sitemynet.com/eng/articles/turkishjewish.htm
- ^ http://www.chabad.org/library/article.asp?AID=111925
- ^ http://www.womeninworldhistory.com/sample-10.html
- ^ http://www.bartleby.com/67/795.html
- Severy, Merle. "The World of Suleiman the Magnificent." National Geographic. Nov. 1987: 552–601
- The Ottomans from Washington State University, Richard Hooker
- Roxolana: "The Greatest Empresse of the East"