I am going to outline the sections of the Wikipedia article here, and under each section will be just the new content that I am going to be adding with the appropriate references.
In January of 1991, Iraqi forces allegedly began dumping oil into the Persian Gulf to stop a US water landing on their shores. Despite quite high initial estimates, the spill likely was about 4,000,000 US barrels (480,000 m3). Within the following months of the spill, most clean-up was _targeted at recovering oil, and very little clean-up was done on Saudi Arabia’s highly-affected beaches. Considered an act of eco-terrorism, the spill was a heated political move that had implications for the larger Gulf War and temporarily damaged Kuwait and Saudi Arabia’s economies.
Background
editThe Gulf War oil spill was a direct result of the Gulf War that took place from 1990-1991. The war--fought between Iraq, under Saddam Hussein, and the Coalition forces--started with Iraq’s invasion and occupation of Kuwait on August 2, 1990.[1] The invasion was a result of long-standing territorial and oil disputes.[1] Several months into the war, Coalition forces led attacks on Iraqi military in Iraq and Kuwait on January 16, 1991.[1] Nearly a week later, Iraqi forces countered these attacks by dumping oil into the Persian Gulf, ultimately resulting in the massive Gulf War oil spill.[1] According to Energy Secretary James D. Watkins, US military had already prepared for such a move, as Saddam Hussein had previously threatened to dump oil into the Persian Gulf.[2]
The spill
editJoyner and Kirkhope also posit that the spill could have been an attempt by Iraqi forces to cut off important water supplies for Coalition forces in Saudi Arabia.[1]
Clean-up
editAfter the spill’s occurrence, most clean-up efforts went into recovering the oil by skimming it from the water’s surface.[3] By April 1991, it is estimated that hundreds of thousands of barrels of oil had already been recovered.[3] However, the clean-up process was impeded by a lack of funding and equipment as well as by the ongoing Gulf War.[2][3] With these obstructions and most clean-up efforts being focused on oil recovery, very little clean-up was done on Saudi Arabia’s beaches.[3][4][5] In a Wall Street Journal article written 14 months after the spill, Ken Wells reports that an estimated 375 miles (604 km) of shoreline remained covered in oil.[4] The lack of attention given to Saudi Arabia’s beaches and other sensitive environments, such as mangrove forests and marshes, brought the Saudi government under attack by environmentalist groups concerned about the lasting effects of the oil.[3]
Environmental Impacts
editFrom the first reports of the spill in January 1991, the possible environmental damage it could cause was at the forefront of many minds. Lippman and Booth, reporting for The Washington Post on January 26, 1991, cited multiple experts who had high concerns about the spill and its impacts on the environment, calling it an “ecological disaster."[2] Despite the industry that skirts the Persian Gulf, the area still supports a diverse ecosystem, including endangered and endemic species.[3] Following the spill, researchers and environmentalists had serious concerns about the mortality of the Persian Gulf’s ecosystem.[3] Research on the spill’s impacts on the environment began as soon as possible after the spill, with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) already having preliminary results in April of 1992, as reported by Ken Wells for The Wall Street Journal.[4] Such research has continued through 2020.
Linden and Husain similarly estimated in 2002 that about 30-40% of the oil was removed by evaporation.[6]
Linden and Husain found that in 2002, on average, oil penetrated about 10 cm, but in some circumstances, oil penetrated almost 50 cm, a depth that lengthens the natural degradation process significantly.[6] In 2001, having studied Gulf sediments along with small crustaceans that live in the sediments known as ostracods, Mostafawi found that offshore sediments and the organisms in them were still affected by the 1991 spill.[7] In 2017, Joydas et al. concluded that, while open water areas had low concentrations of hydrocarbons in the sediment, secluded bay areas had “alarming levels” that threatened the quality of life of organisms in such areas.[8]
Researchers have focused on the health of the unique habitats of the Persian Gulf, including coral reefs, salt marshes, mud flats, and mangrove forests.[3] Linden and Husain in 2002, as well as Issa and Vempatti in 2018, found that coral reefs were relatively unaffected by the oil spill.[6][9]
Issa and Vempatti also found that mangrove forests had mostly recovered by 1995.[9] Michel et al. found that salt marshes had a low recovery rate after the oil spill but found that mangrove forests had not recovered in 2003.[10]
Linden and Husain in 2002, as well as Issa and Vempatti in 2018, reported that the oil had largely lost its toxicity by the time it reached shore; however, the oil coated vegetation and blocked light and air, damaging it.[6][9] Both groups of researchers also found that the spill caused the death of many seabirds, including almost 30,000 grebes and cormorants, by coating the birds’ feathers.[6][9] Linden and Husain found that marine turtles were relatively unaffected by the spill, except the Hawksbill sea turtle had a lower hatching rate that could have been caused by the 1991 spill.[6] They also concluded that fish species in the northern Gulf were relatively unaffected by the spill.[6]
Political and Economic Impacts
editIn the first days of the spill, President George Bush was quoted as calling the spill strategy a “sick” act by Saddam Hussein.[11] In January 1991, Andrew Rosenthal for The New York Times observed the US government’s eagerness to utilize the act to further demonize Saddam Hussein and to solidify Hussein as deeply immoral.[11] A representative of the Pentagon Pete Williams described the spill as “environmental terrorism,” and Roger E. McManus of the Center for Marine Conservation stated Hussein “should be held accountable for his despicable crimes against the environment."[11] The Gulf War oil spill is considered “the world's first known act of large-scale eco-terrorism."[4]
The Gulf War oil spill caused significant economic damage to the fishing and oil industries around the Persian Gulf. Because of the war, and particularly because of the spill, fish and prawn fishing in the Gulf were halted in 1991.[6] The spill also led to damage of fishing equipment and infrastructure.[9] According to Issa and Vempatti, the spill caused a 1.5-2% loss of Kuwait’s oil reserves--a $12.3 billion to $38.4 billion loss.[9]
- ^ a b c d e Joyner, Christopher; Kirkhope, James (1992-01-01). "The Persian Gulf War Oil Spill: Reassessing the Law of Environmental Protection and the Law of Armed Conflict". Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law. 24 (1): 29. ISSN 0008-7254.
- ^ a b c Lippman, Thomas W.; Booth, William (January 26, 1991). "OIL SPREADING OFF KUWAIT POSES ECOLOGICAL DISASTER". The Washington Post. Retrieved December 7, 2020.
{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ^ a b c d e f g h Booth, William (April 8, 1991). "War's Oil Spill Still Sullies Gulf Shore: Flow Continues as Saudi Cleanup Effort Described as Late, Little". The Washington Post.
- ^ a b c d Wells, Ken (April 10, 1992). "Gulf Oil Spill Of 1991 War Is Evaluated --- Saudi Beach Areas Remain 'Paved' With Crude Oil, U.S. Agency Team Says". The Wall Street Journal.
- ^ "Lessons learned from Gulf War oil spill". The World. Public Radio International. Retrieved December 7, 2020.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ^ a b c d e f g h Linden, O.; Husain, T. (2014). "Impact of Wars; the Gulf War 1990-91". The Gulf Ecosystem Health and Sustainability: 279–290 – via JSTOR.
- ^ Mostafawi, Nasser (2001-09-01). "How severely was the Persian Gulf affected by oil spills following the 1991 Gulf War?". Environmental Geology. 40 (10): 1185–1191. doi:10.1007/s002540100238. ISSN 0943-0105.
- ^ Joydas, Thadickal V.; Qurban, Mohammad A.; Borja, Angel; Krishnakumar, Periyadan K.; Al-Suwailem, Abdulaziz (2017-08-03). "Macrobenthic Community Structure in the Northwestern Arabian Gulf, Twelve Years after the 1991 Oil Spill". Frontiers in Marine Science. 4: 248. doi:10.3389/fmars.2017.00248. ISSN 2296-7745.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ a b c d e f Issa, Nivine; Vempatti, Sreya (2018-05-29). "Oil Spills in the Arabian Gulf: A Case Study and Environmental Review". Environment and Natural Resources Research. 8 (2): 144. doi:10.5539/enrr.v8n2p144. ISSN 1927-0496.
- ^ Michel, Jacqueline; Hayes, Miles O.; Getter; Cotsapas (2005). "The Gulf War oil spill twelve years later: consequences of eco-terrorism". International Oil Spill Conference 2005. American Petroleum Institute.
- ^ a b c Rosenthal, Andrew (January 26, 1991). "War In The Gulf: The President; Bush Calls Gulf Oil Spill A 'Sick' Act by Hussein". The New York Times.