Rashin daidaituwa a cikin ilimi na musamman
Rashin daidaituwa a cikin ilimi na musamman, shine wakilci mara daidaito na wasu kungiyoyin jama'a a cikin ƙuntataccen matsayi da horo, musamman a cikin tsarin makarantar jama'a ta Amurka. Sau da yawa ana nuna rashin daidaituwa a matsayin wakilci na ƙarancin launin fata, kabilanci, zamantakewa da tattalin arziki, ko al'adu da harshe daban-daban (CLD) a cikin ilimi na musamman idan aka kwatanta da kasancewarsu a cikin yawan ɗalibai. Yankin yaro da kabilanci na iya yin tasiri sosai ga yiwuwar kuskuren ganewa kamar yadda yake buƙatar sabis na ilimi na musamman, yana haifar da damuwa game da adalci, daidaito, da kuma yiwuwar tasiri ga sakamakon ilimi na ɗalibai.
 Rashin daidaituwa a cikin ilimi na musamman | |
|---|---|
education in country or region (en)  | |
 | |
| Bayanai | |
| Facet of (en) | karantarwa |
| Ƙasa | Tarayyar Amurka |
Bayyanawa
gyara sasheAkwai damuwa daban-daban game da gano dalibai a cikin ilimi na musamman. Bayyana yawan ɗalibai yana nufin damuwa cewa ɗaliban launi, musamman ɗaliban Afirka na Amirka, ana sanya su cikin ilimi na musamman a mafi girma fiye da takwarorinsu na fararen ɗalibai, wanda zai iya haifar da yiwuwar zargi da mummunar tasiri ga abubuwan da suka faru a ilimi.[1] Rashin ganewar dalibai yana nufin halin da ake ciki inda daliban launi ba su da damar ganowa kuma su sami sabis na ilimi na musamman fiye da takwarorinsu masu farin da ke nuna irin wannan hali, wanda zai iya haifar da dalibai ba su sami tallafin da suke bukata don samun nasara a makaranta ba.[1][1]
Dalibai masu launi suna cikin haɗari don kuskuren ganewa don ilimi na musamman saboda an gano su ba daidai ba kamar suna da rarrabuwa da ba a so a cikin al'umma kamar rikicewar motsin rai da nakasa ta hankali lokacin da suke da nakasa da ba a gano su ba, wanda ke haifar da tsoma baki da tallafi ga waɗannan ɗalibai.[1]
Kulawa
gyara sasheSashe na 300.646 na Sashe na B na Dokar Ilimi ta Mutum da ke da nakasa (IDEA) an tsara shi don tabbatar da cewa ana buƙatar kowace jiha da ke karɓar kuɗi don ƙayyade idan akwai rashin daidaituwa bisa ga launin fata ko kabilanci da ke faruwa a cikin Jiha da Hukumomin Ilimi na Ƙasa (LEAs) na jihar game da gano yara a matsayin yara masu nakasa, sanyawa musamman saitunan ilimi na waɗannan yara, da abin da ya faru, tsawon lokaci, da kuma nau'in cire horo daga sanyawa, gami da dakatar da fitarwa.
A wani bangare na B na IDEA, kowace jiha tana karɓar kuɗi, kuma Sakataren Cikin Gida na Amurka dole ne ya samar da tattarawa da nazarin bayanai don sanin ko mahimmancin rashin daidaituwa bisa ga launin fata da kabilanci yana faruwa a cikin Jiha da LEAs na Jiha."A cikin Sashe na 300.64 na Dokar, ana buƙatar Jihohi su bincika bayanai don rashin daidaituwa a cikin waɗannan yankuna:
- Bayyana yara masu nakasa da nakasa,
- Matsayin yaro a cikin yanayin ilimi, da
- Duk wani dakatarwar ko korar daga makaranta da kuma tsawon lokacin
IDEA ta ba da umarnin cewa jihohi su tattara da kuma bincika bayanan ilimi na musamman game da kabilanci da kabilun a matakin gundumar.[2]
Kula da Jiha
gyara sasheJihohi sun sa ido kuma sun tilasta rashin daidaituwa a cikin ilimi na musamman ta hanyar buƙatun da aka saita a cikin IDEA da Rahotanni na Ayyuka na Shekara-shekara (APRs). [3] A matakin gundumar, ana ba da izini ga jihohi su tattara da bincika bayanan ilimi na musamman game da launin fata da kabilanci.[1] Hakanan ana buƙatar su bayar da rahoto game da takamaiman alamomi da suka shafi rashin daidaituwa ga ɗalibai masu nakasa da kuma yawan gundumomin da ke nuna wakilcin launin fata da kabilanci a cikin ilimi na musamman.[1][3]
Idan jihohi sun gano muhimmiyar rashin daidaituwa bisa ga launin fata da kabilanci, bisa ga Sashe na 300.464 na Sashe na B na IDEA, dole ne su:
- Bayar da bita na shekara-shekara kuma, idan ya dace, sake duba manufofi, ayyuka, da hanyoyin da aka yi amfani da su wajen ganowa ko sanyawa a wasu saitunan ilimi.
- LEA dole ne ta ba da rahoto game da sake fasalin manufofi, ayyuka, da hanyoyin.
- Sakataren Harkokin Cikin Gida na Jiha zai buƙaci duk wani LEA da aka gano don adana iyakar adadin kudade don samar da cikakkun ayyuka na shiga tsakani don magance abubuwan da ke taimakawa ga rashin daidaituwa.
- Lokacin aiwatar da ayyukan shiga tsakani, LEA na iya samar da ci gaban kwararru da kimantawa na ilimi da halayyar, ayyuka, da tallafi.
- LEA dole ne ta gano kuma ta magance abubuwan da ke ba da gudummawa ga rashin daidaituwa da kuma tattalin arziki, al'adu, ko shingen harshe don ganowa ko sanyawa a cikin saituna da duk wata manufofi, ayyuka, ko hanyoyin da ke ba su gudummawa zuwa rashin daidaituwa.
- LEA dole ne ta magance manufofi, aiki, ko hanyar da ke ba da gudummawa ga rashin daidaituwa.[2]
Ba a buƙatar jihohi su gano LEA tare da gagarumin rashin daidaituwa idan LEA ta wuce ƙofar haɗari amma ta nuna ci gaba mai ma'ana wajen rage haɗarin haɗari ga rukuni da rukunin bincike a kowane shekaru biyu da suka gabata.[4]
Aunawa
gyara sasheAn yi amfani da dabarun nazari don bincika rashin daidaituwa a cikin ilimi na musamman, gami da haɗari, koma baya, da koma baya da yawa. Rarrabawar haɗari ta haɗa da haɗari, ƙimar ƙarancin, haɗarin dangi, da ƙimar haɗari. Misalai na koma baya suna kimanta yiwuwar sanyawa ko sabis na ilimi na musamman a matsayin aiki na masu canji masu zaman kansu. Komawa mai yawa yana ba da gida ga ɗalibai a cikin makarantu, gundumomi, ko al'ummomi don lissafin ƙididdigar cikin- da tsakanin-ƙungiya. Binciken binciken kan rashin daidaituwa a cikin ilimi na musamman ya bambanta sosai a duk faɗin karatu saboda abubuwan da suka haɗa da amfani da bayanan bayanai daban-daban a matakai daban-daban, gami da samfurori na ɗalibai a maki da shekaru daban-daban. [5]
Bincike mai inganci ya haɗa da hanyoyin deductive da inductive, gami da ci gaban litattafan da ke mai da hankali kan tsarin ra'ayi da wallafe-wallafen da ke akwai game da manufofin ilimi da rashin daidaituwa.[6] Bincike mai yawa yana da labaran da aka tsara bisa ga binciken da aka yi amfani da shi a kowane binciken, kamar haɗari, koma baya ko koma baya da yawa.[1][6]
Tasirin aikin yanzu
gyara sasheAkwai wurare da yawa don ingantawa a cikin aikin yanzu na saka idanu game da rashin daidaituwa. Akwai rashin daidaituwa a cikin fassarar da aiwatar da tanadin IDEA ta Ma'aikatar Ilimi da Ofishin Shirye-shiryen Ilimi na Musamman (OSEP), wanda ke haifar da rikicewa a jihohi da matakan gida wanda ke hana ci gaba wajen magance batun.[3] Har ila yau, akwai bin jihohi da gundumar tare da bangarorin tsari na ganewar ilimi na musamman maimakon magance abubuwan da ke tattare da tsarin da ke taimakawa ga rashin daidaituwa, wanda zai iya rage girman ainihin matsalar kuma ya hana shiga tsakani ga ɗaliban da ke buƙatar su.[1] Kodayake bincike yana da rubuce-rubuce game da yawan wakilci na ɗaliban launi a cikin mafi ƙuntataccen yanayi, OSEP ba ta haɗa da yanayin ilimi a cikin saka idanu da aiwatar da wakilci mara daidaituwa ba.[7]
Fassarar tarayya na harshen doka na IDEA ya saba wa binciken da aka samu a cikin bincike na ilimi na musamman. Gyara zuwa IDEA a cikin 1997 da 2004 sun amince da girman bambancin launin fata da kabilanci, amma fassarorin tarayya na abin da ake buƙata na 2004 sun haifar da rikicewa a matakan Jiha da LEA. Bayanai sun nuna cewa fassarar tarayya na IDEA 2004, jagororin ka'idoji, da ƙirar alamomi don saka idanu da tilasta aiki ba su da tasiri wajen magance rashin daidaituwa na launin fata da kabilanci.
Rashin daidaituwa mai mahimmanci
gyara sasheIdan an sami rashin daidaituwa mai mahimmanci dangane da kabilanci ko kabilanci, to bisa ga Sashe na 300.646 na Sashe na B na IDEA, dole ne jihohi su ba da bita na shekara-shekara na bita na manufofi, ayyuka, da matakai game da sanya waɗannan yara a cikin saitunan ilimi (ciki har da horo. ayyuka don tabbatar da sun bi dokar kuma suna buƙatar LEA ta ba da rahoton duk wani bita.[ana buƙatar hujja]</link>
Babban rashin daidaituwa, kamar yadda IDEA Sashe na 618 (d), yana nufin bambancin da ya danganci kabilanci da kabilanci a cikin jihar da LEAs game da gano yara masu nakasa, sanya su a wasu saitunan ilimi, da kuma lokacin da ya faru da kuma nau'in ayyukan horo.[4] Wakilin da bai dace ba, kamar yadda IDEA Sashe na 616 (a) (3) (C), yana nufin yawan wakilci ko ƙarancin wakilci na kabilanci da kabilanci a cikin ilimi na musamman da ayyukan da suka danganci wanda shine sakamakon ganewa mara kyau.[1] Muhimman ka'idojin rashin daidaituwa ba su shafi ko magance wajibin gano wakilci mara daidaituwa saboda rashin daidaituwa a ƙarƙashin IDEA Sashe na 616 (a) (3) (C). [1][4]
Sashe na IDEA na 618 (d) yana buƙatar jihohi su tattara da bincika bayanai don tantance ko mahimman rashin daidaituwa bisa ga launin fata da kabilanci yana faruwa a cikin jihar da LEAs na jihar dangane da gano yara masu nakasa, sanyawa a cikin takamaiman tsarin ilimi, da abin da ya faru, tsawon lokaci, da nau'in ayyukan horo, gami da korar.[4]
Idan jihohi sun gano muhimmiyar rashin daidaituwa bisa ga launin fata da kabilanci, dole ne su dauki matakai da yawa bisa ga Sashe na 300.646 na Sashe na B na IDEA:
- Bayar da bita na shekara-shekara da sake dubawa na manufofi, ayyuka, da hanyoyin da aka yi amfani da su wajen gano dalibai masu nakasa don tabbatar da cewa sun bi bukatun Dokar.
- Bukatar LEA ta ba da rahoto a fili game da sake fasalin manufofi, ayyuka, da hanyoyin.
- Aiwatar da cikakkun ayyuka masu daidaitawa, gami da ci gaban ƙwararru da kimantawa na ilimi da halayyar.
- LEA dole ne ta gano kuma ta magance abubuwan da ke ba da gudummawa ga gagarumin rashin daidaituwa.
- LEA dole ne ta magance manufofi, aiki, ko hanyar da ta gano a matsayin mai ba da gudummawa ga muhimmiyar rashin daidaituwa.[8]
Rashin daidaituwa tsakanin launin fata
gyara sasheTushen abubuwan da ke haifar da rashin daidaituwa na launin fata da kabilanci a cikin turawar ilimi na musamman ana iya danganta su da ra'ayoyin ra'ayi na launin fata le matsayi na zamantakewa da tattalin arziki, rashin isasshen kariya ta ma'aikata, ra'ayoyi na malamai game da ikon ɗalibai, da rashin manufofi da tsoma baki a makarantu.[9] Canje-canje na tattalin arziki da na yawan jama'a, rashin daidaituwa na al'adu, rashin daidaito a cikin ilimi na gaba ɗaya, da nuna bambancin launin fata na iya ba da gudummawa ga wakilcin ɗaliban 'yan tsiraru. [6][3] Dalibai daga launin fata, al'adu, kabilanci, da kuma 'yan tsiraru na harshe suna iya zama masu nakasa a mafi girman mitar kuma an cire su daga ilimi na al'ada. Bugu da kari, dalibai daga asalin marasa galihu da daliban launi suna iya koyar da su ta hanyar malamai marasa ƙwarewa a makarantun da ba su da kuɗi.[10]
Yanayin tsarin tseren a Amurka muhimmiyar mahimmanci ce wajen fahimtar tsarin tura ilimi na musamman.[6] Manufofin tattalin arziki, ilimi da kuma kawar da wariyar launin fata a makaranta suna taimakawa ga rashin daidaituwa.[1] Yawan ɗalibai masu launi yana ƙaruwa yayin da ƙabilanci ko ƙabilancin ƙabilance suka zama mafi yawan jama'ar jiharsu.[7] Kwararrun makarantu da ke da hannu a yanke shawara (watau, turawa, kimantawa, da tarurrukan cancanta don sanya ilimi na musamman) suna yin sulhu da rashin daidaituwa.[1][6]
Dalibai masu launi galibi suna halartar makarantu tare da iyakantaccen albarkatu da matakan rashin amfani, wanda ke haifar da dogaro da rashin daidaituwa akan wuraren ilimi na musamman ga waɗannan ɗalibai.[6] Ƙungiyoyin da ba su da yawa a tarihi a Amurka, kamar su 'yan Afirka na Afirka, Latinos, da' yan asalin Amurka, ana wakiltar su sosai a cikin manyan nau'ikan nakasassu (watau, nakasassu na hankali, cututtukan nau'ikan autism, raunin kwakwalwa, rikicewar harshe, rikice-rikice na halayyar, da Rashin kulawa), kuma al'adun makaranta da tarihin al'adu na ɗalibai da iyalansu suna haɗuwa kuma galibi ana tunanin su a matsayin wani ɓangare na su. Bambancin launin fata da kabilanci galibi ana samun su akai-akai a cikin nau'ikan nakasa "mai wuya" (watau, raunin ji, raunin gani, ko raunin orthopedic) kuma galibi a cikin nau-ikan nakasa na "mai laushi" (walla, nakasa ta hankali, rikicewar motsin rai, ko nakasa ta ilmantarwa) es.[7]
Kowane mutum, mahallin, da abubuwan tsarin suna ba da gudummawa ga rashin daidaituwa a cikin ilimi na musamman. Fahimtar rashin daidaituwa a cikin ilimi na musamman ya haɗa da rarraba tushen abubuwan da ke haifar da dalilai daban-daban, kowannensu yana ba da gudummawa ga batun mai rikitarwa. Wadannan rukunoni sun haskaka kan ƙalubalen da ɗaliban launi suka fuskanta:
Malami mai son kai
gyara sashe'Dangantaka tsakanin iyalai da makarantu na iya zama daban-daban daga wata makaranta zuwa wata, yana ba da gudummawa ga rashin daidaituwa a cikin binciken kan rashin daidaituwa.[5] Malamai na iya ba da gudummawa ga rashin daidaituwa ta hanyar malamai da ke fassara bambance-bambance na al'adu, harshe, da kuma bambance-bucen dialectical a matsayin rashi, wanda ke haifar da daliban launi da ake ganewa da rashin daidaituwa kamar suna da nakasa na ilmantarwa.[3][1][10][11] Wadannan nuna bambanci na iya mayar da hankali daga wasu rashin daidaito na zamantakewa wanda zai iya tasiri ga yawan ilmantarwa da sauran nakasa tsakanin takamaiman al'ummomi.[3][1]
Fassarar halayen da malamai daga al'adu daban-daban ke yi na iya cutar da ɗaliban launi saboda yana haifar da ayyukan horo na ma'aikata.[10] Baya ga ɗaliban launi da aka fi ganewa, ƙarancin ganewa na waɗannan ɗalibai na iya faruwa duk da nuna irin wannan aikin ilimi ga ɗaliban fari.[11] Malamai suna buƙatar ɗaukar ra'ayi na ɗalibai, amfani da dabarun adalci na maidowa a cikin ɗakunan ajiyarsu, a ilimantar da su kan al'adun al'adu na ɗalibai.[12]
Manufofin makaranta da hanyoyin
gyara sasheHanyoyin turawa da gano dalibai don ilimi na musamman na iya rinjayar su ta hanyar nuna bambanci da hukunce-hukunce da ke haifar da yawan wakiltar dalibai masu launi.[13][14] Hakanan ana iya ganin rashin daidaituwa a cikin manufofin horo na makaranta ta hanyar aiwatar da ayyukan horo masu tsanani ga ɗaliban launi masu nakasa.[12] Ayyukan koyarwa da tsammanin ilimi da makarantar ta kafa na iya ba da gudummawa ta hanyar sa ran ƙananan umarni da ba su da tsauri ga ɗaliban launi, wanda ke haifar da rashin aikin waɗannan ƙungiyoyin ɗalibai da turawa zuwa ilimi na musamman.[2] Bugu da ƙari, hanyar da makarantu ke rarraba albarkatu na iya ba da gudummawa ga rashin daidaituwa a cikin waɗannan makarantu da ke da karancin albarkatu, sau da yawa a cikin unguwanni marasa kyau tare da yara masu launi, na iya zama mafi kusantar sanya ɗalibai a cikin ilimi na musamman a matsayin hanyar samun ƙarin kuɗi.[9] Makarantu da yawa suna mai da hankali kan bin dokoki, musamman wadanda ke cikin IDEA, wanda zai iya haifar da mai da hankali sosai kan bangarorin tsari na ganewar ilimi na musamman, maimakon magance gudummawar tsarin rashin daidaituwa.[1][13]
Abubuwan muhalli
gyara sasheYawancin ɗalibai masu launi waɗanda aka gano don sabis na ilimi na musamman sun fito ne daga al'ummomin da ba su da wadata kuma suna iya fuskantar guba na muhalli (watau, gubar, mercury, da sauran sunadarai masu cutarwa), waɗanda aka haɗa su da nakasa ta ilmantarwa kuma suna iya yin mummunar tasiri ga ilmantarwa da ci gaba.[11] Samun damar albarkatun da ke ba da gudummawa ga ci gaban kwakwalwa mai lafiya (watau, kiwon lafiya, abinci mai gina jiki mai kyau, ilimi mai inganci na yara, da kuma shiga tsakani na yara) sau da yawa ba daidai ba ne, kuma rashin samun damar waɗannan albarkatun na iya haifar da matsalolin ilmantarwa daga baya a rayuwa, wanda ke haifar da yawan wakiltar ɗaliban launi a cikin ilimi na musamman.[1]
Batutuwan tsarin
gyara sasheRashin daidaito na tsarin yana sanya ɗaliban launi a cikin haɗari mai girma don sanya ilimi na musamman. Yawan wakilcin ɗaliban launi a cikin ilimi na musamman na iya zama saboda ba da gudummawa ga batutuwan tsarin. Makarantu galibi suna amfani da fararen matsakaicin aji a matsayin al'ada don kimanta halayyar ɗalibai da nasarori, wanda zai iya cutar da ɗaliban launi saboda ana iya kallon su a matsayin masu tsattsauran ra'ayi, wanda ke haifar da ƙarin turawa da kuma sanya ilimi na musamman.[10] Bugu da ƙari, yana magana game da kwarewar fararen matsakaicin aji ya yi watsi da gaskiyar cewa al'ummomin al'adu a cikin Amurka suna ƙirƙirar manufofi da inganta ci gaban yaransu dangane da takamaiman dama da ƙuntatawa lokacin da ya kamata a bincika su cikin hasken hadaddun daidaitawa da hanyoyin zama ga yanayin muhalli.[6] Da zarar an lakafta waɗannan ɗalibai a matsayin ɗaliban ilimi na musamman, suna iya fuskantar ayyukan horo na warewa.[12] Dalibai masu launi galibi suna halartar makarantun da ba su da kuɗi, makarantun da ke da ƙarancin malamai; lokacin da suka halarci makarantun fararen fata, galibi ana sake raba su cikin darussan gyarawa, wanda ke tasiri ga nasarorin da suka samu saboda ƙananan ka'idoji da rashin koyarwa.[1][10]
Akwai damuwa cewa ɗaliban launi a yankunan da ba su da tattalin arziki na iya karɓar sabis na ilimi na musamman a cikin saitunan rarrabewa, suna haifar da shingen ga nasarar ilimi na yau da kullun.[1] Dalibai a cikin waɗannan ƙananan yankuna na tattalin arziki sun fi dacewa su halarci makarantu tare da isasshen kudade, horar da malamai, da kuma ƙananan tsammanin ɗalibai.[1][1]
Kodayake launin fata da talauci sune ainihin batutuwan tsarin, magance rashin daidaito na tsarin a cikin tsarin ilimi na iya samun tasiri sosai a kan rashin daidaituwa da kuma yawan wakiltar ɗaliban launi a cikin ilimi na musamman.[10]
Manufofin da ke ba da gudummawa
gyara sasheTakamaiman manufofi na ilimi da dokoki waɗanda ke ba da gudummawa ga bambancin launin fata galibi ana saka su a cikin ayyukan horo na makaranta da ayyukan ilimi na musamman. Misali, manufofin Zero-tolerance, wanda ke ba da umarnin hukunce-hukuncen da aka ƙaddara don takamaiman laifuka, yana shafar ɗaliban launi. Wadannan manufofi galibi suna haifar da dakatarwa da fitarwa ga waɗannan ɗalibai, wanda shine ɗayan shahararrun alamun sanyawa a cikin ilimi na musamman. Aiwatar da waɗannan manufofi da dokoki na ilimi galibi ana rinjayar su ta hanyar wariyar launin fata, wanda ke haifar da tasiri mara kyau ga ɗaliban launi.
Akwai tsarin tsarin rashin daidaituwa wanda aka saka a cikin tsarin ilimi wanda sau da yawa ana ci gaba da shi ta hanyar manufofi masu kama da "rashin daidaituwa" waɗanda ke haifar da sakamakon da ke cike da launin fata.[12] Wannan yana nuna cewa bambancin launin fata da ke da alaƙa da rashin daidaituwa a cikin ilimi na musamman suna da zurfi a cikin tsarin da manufofi na tsarin ilimi kuma ba kawai sakamakon son kai ko ayyuka ba.
Manazarta
gyara sashe- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 "Core principles: Disproportionality in identification for special education". Learning Disabilities Association of America. 2020. Retrieved November 12, 2023. Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; name "Learning Disabilities Association of America-2020" defined multiple times with different content - ↑ 2.0 2.1 "Sec. 300.646 Disproportionality". IDEA: Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. December 19, 2016. Retrieved November 11, 2023. Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; name "IDEA: Individuals with Disabilities Education Act-2016" defined multiple times with different content - ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Albrecht, S.F.; Skiba, R.J; Losen, D.J.; Chung, C-G; Middelberg, L. (May 31, 2012). "Federal Policy on Disproportionality in Special Education: Is it Moving us Forward?". Journal of Disability Policy Studies. 23 (1): 14–25. doi:10.1177/1044207311407917. S2CID 143936340 – via JSTOR. Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; name "Albrecht-2012" defined multiple times with different content - ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 "Idea Part B Regulations: Significant Disproportionality (Equity in IDEA)" (PDF). Department of Education (.gov). March 2017. Retrieved November 11, 2023. Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; name "Department of Education (.gov)-2017" defined multiple times with different content - ↑ 5.0 5.1 Cruz, R; Rodl, J.E. (2018). "An Integrative Synthesis of Literature on Disproportionality in Special Education". The Journal of Special Education. 52 (1): 50–63. doi:10.1177/0022466918758707. S2CID 148647037. Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; name "Cruz-2018" defined multiple times with different content - ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 Artiles, Alfredo J.; Kozleski, Elizabeth B.; Trent, Stanley C.; Osher, David; Ortiz, Alba (April 2010). "Justifying and Explaining Disproportionality, 1968–2008: A Critique of Underlying Views of Culture". Exceptional Children (in Turanci) (published April 1, 2010). 76 (3): 279–299. doi:10.1177/001440291007600303. ISSN 0014-4029. S2CID 55124758 – via Sage Journals.
|hdl-access=requires|hdl=(help) Cite error: Invalid<ref>tag; name "Artiles-2010" defined multiple times with different content - ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Skiba, R. (2013). "CCBD's position summary on federal policy on disproportionality in special education". Behavioral Disorders. 38 (2): 108–120. doi:10.1177/019874291303800202. S2CID 141061180. Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; name "Skiba-2013" defined multiple times with different content - ↑ "Racial and ethnic disparities in special education: A multi-year disproportionality analysis by state, analysis category, and Race/Ethnicity". U.S. Department of Education. December 6, 2021. Retrieved November 11, 2023.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 Ahram, Roey; Fergus, Edward; Noguera, Pedro (October 2011). "Addressing Racial/Ethnic Disproportionality in Special Education: Case Studies of Suburban School Districts". Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education (in Turanci). 113 (10): 2233–2266. doi:10.1177/016146811111301004. ISSN 0161-4681. S2CID 142247719. Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; name "Ahram-2011" defined multiple times with different content - ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 O'Connor, C.; Fernandez, S.D. (2006). "Race, class, and disproportionality: Reevaluating the relationships between poverty and special education placement". Education Researcher. 35 (6): 108–120. Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; name "O'Connor-2006" defined multiple times with different content - ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 "Core Principles: Disproportionality in Identification for Special Education – Learning Disabilities Association of America" (in Turanci). Retrieved 2023-11-09. Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; name "Core Principles" defined multiple times with different content - ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Annamma, S.; Morrison, D.; Jackson, D. (2012). "Federal policy on disproportionality in special education: Is it moving us forward?". Journal of Disability Policy Studies. 23 (1): 14–25. doi:10.1177/1044207311407917. S2CID 143936340. Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; name "Annamma-2012" defined multiple times with different content - ↑ 13.0 13.1 Tefera, A.A.; Fischman, G.E. (2020). "How and why context matters in the study of racial disproportionality in special education: Toward a critical disability education policy approach". Equity & Excellence in Education. 53 (4): 433–448. doi:10.1080/10665684.2020.1791284. S2CID 230794875 Check
|s2cid=value (help). - ↑ Sullivan, A.L.; Bal, A. (2013). "Disproportionality in special education: Effects of individual and school variables on disability risk". Exceptional Children. 79 (4): 475–494. doi:10.1177/001440291307900406. S2CID 143034240.