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利用者:実芭蕉/sandbox5

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女性

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研究によると異性愛者の男性は、身体的な対称性をもつ[1]若くて[2]美しい女性[3]に惹かれる傾向がある。現代社会では、男性が女性のルックスを重視する傾向が強まり、それが減少しているというよりも、むしろ増加の一途をたどっている[4]。進化心理学者は、このような魅力を、交際相手の潜在的な繁殖力（英語版）を評価することに起因すると述べている[2]。

顔の特徴

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General

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→「Cuteness」および「Averageness」も参照
 
トロント大学の調査によると、ジェシカ・アルバの顔の比率は全女性のプロフィールの平均に近い（英語版）ことがわかった[5]。
 
安室奈美恵によって、日本では小顔の流行がもたらされた。その結果、日本人の女性は、マスクやクリームなどの美容製品を購入して、彼女のような小顔になろうとした[6]。

これまで研究において、どういった顔の特徴が魅力を伝えるのかについて明らかにしようと研究がなされていた。女性では顔の対称性（英語版）が魅力的とされ[7][8]、男性から女性では「唇が厚い」[9]「額が高い」「顔が広い」「顎が小さい」「鼻が小さい」「顎が短くて狭い」「頬骨が高い」[10][11]「肌が透き通っている」「目が大きい」[2]といった特徴が好まれることがわかっている。「顔のパーツのすべてがどのようにまとまっているか」という観点から見た顔の形は、美しさを決定づける重要な要素である[12]。トロント大学の研究では、顔の測定値と魅力の間に相関関係があることを発見された。研究者たちは、同じ女性の顔を描いた異なる絵の中で、目と目の間の距離、目と口の間の距離を変化させ、被験者にその絵を評価してもらった[5]。その結果、魅力的であると認識される理想的な比率があることが発見された（写真を参照）。写真のプロポーション（46％・36％）は、全女性のプロフィールの平均に近い（英語版）ものであった[5]。また、目の中に太くて濃い目のリンバルリング（英語版）を持つ女性は、より魅力的であることがわかっている。これは、加齢や医学的な問題でリンバルリングが薄くなる傾向があるため、目尻のリンバルリングが目立つことは若さの素直な指標になるからだとされている[13]。

ペルシャ文学では、美しい女性はヘーゼルナッツのような鼻をしているとされている[14]。 中世のアラビア社会では、女性の美の理想の構成要素として、まっすぐで細長い鼻が挙げられていた[15]。 ユダヤ教のラビ文学（英語版）では、ラビは繊細な鼻を女性の理想的な鼻のタイプとしていた[16]。 日本では江戸時代に、女性の美の理想の構成要素として、まっすぐで過度に高すぎない高い鼻が挙げられていた[17]。

異文化間の研究では、女性の実際の年齢に関係なく、より幼形成熟した（すなわち若々しく見える）女性の顔は男性にとって最も魅力的であることが判明したが、幼形成熟していない女性の顔は男性にとって魅力的ではないことが判明した[18]。美人コンテストで優勝したイタリア人女性を対象とした研究では、彼女たちの顔は、参照として使用された「普通の」女性よりも「赤ちゃんっぽい」（幼形成熟した）特徴を持っていることが判明している[19]。

マルシンコフスカらは、異文化間の研究で、調査対象となった28カ国すべての18～45歳の異性愛者の男性は、Psychomorphというソフトで顔を女性化した18～24歳の白人女性の写真よりも、Psychomorphで顔を男性化した18～24歳の白人女性の写真の方が好まれていたが、国によって女性らしさの好みに違いがあったと述べている。国民健康指数（英語版）が高い国ほど、男性化した顔よりも女性化した顔の方が好まれる傾向が見られた。調査対象国の中では、日本が最も女性らしさの好みが高く、ネパールが最も女性らしさの好みが低かった[20]。

ルイビル大学心理学科のマイケル・R・カニンガムは、東アジア系、ヒスパニック系、白人の審査員を使って、アジア系、ヒスパニック系、白人の女性の顔の中で最も魅力的に感じるのは、「幼形成熟の大きな目を持ち、目と目の間の距離が大きく、鼻が小さい」顔であることを発見し、彼の研究は、「幼形成熟が示すもの」の中で「大きな目」が最も「効果的」であると結論づけた[21]。カニンガムはまた、「ツヤのある」髪の毛は「幼形成熟の活力」を示しているのではないかとも述べている[21]。黒人と白人のパネルを審査員として使って、カニンガムは、より幼形成熟的な顔の方が「女性らしさ」と「社交性」の両方が高いと認識されることを発見した[21]。対照的に、カニンガムは、「幼形成熟度が低い」顔は「威圧的」と判断されることを発見した[21][21]。カニンガムは、アジア人審査員と白人審査員の好みに「差」があることを指摘しており、アジア人審査員は白人審査員よりも「幼形成熟度が高い顔」で「口が小さい」女性を好むとしている。カニンガムは、「アジア人の顔はそのような資質を持っている」ので、この嗜好の違いは「民族中心主義」に起因するのではないかと仮説を立て、「11人のアジア人を除外した」データを再分析を行った[21]。その結果、「民族中心主義はアジア人の嗜好の主な決定要因ではない」と結論づけた[21]。純粋に「幼形成熟」の顔が最も魅力的であるという根拠を見つけるのではなく、カニンガムは、顔の「周辺部」に「性的に成熟した」特徴を持つ顔と「顔の中心部」にある「幼形成熟」の特徴を組み合わせた顔が、男女ともに最も魅力的であることを発見した[21]。この研究結果を分析した結果、カニンガムは、「魅力評価」の観点から「幼形成熟の特徴」を好むことが最も異文化間のばらつきが少ないと結論づけ、別の研究では、魅力的な顔の特徴には大きな一致があると結論づけている[22][23]。

In computer face averaging tests, women with averaged（英語版） faces have been shown to be considered more attractive.[24][25] This is possibly due to average features being more familiar and, therefore, more comfortable.[7]

Commenting on the prevalence of whiteness in supposed beauty ideals in his book White Lies: Race and the Myth of Whiteness, Maurice Berger（英語版） states that the schematic rendering in the idealized face of a study conducted with American subjects had "straight hair," "light skin," "almond-shaped eyes," "thin, arched eyebrows," "a long, thin nose, closely set and tiny nostrils" and "a large mouth and thin lips",[26] though the author of the study stated that there was consistency between his results and those conducted on other races. Scholar Liu Jieyu says in the article White Collar Beauties, "The criterion of beauty is both arbitrary and gendered. The implicit consensus is that women who have fair skin and a slim figure with symmetrical facial features are pretty." He says that all of these requirements are socially constructed and force people to change themselves to fit these criteria.[27]

One psychologist speculated there were two opposing principles of female beauty: prettiness and rarity. So on average, symmetrical features are one ideal, while unusual, stand-out features are another.[28] A study performed by the University of Toronto found that the most attractive facial dimensions were those found in the average female face. However, that particular University of Toronto study looked only at white women.[29]

A study that used Chinese, Malay and Indian judges said that Chinese women with orthognathism where the mouth is flat and in-line with the rest of the face were judged to be the most attractive and Chinese women with a protruding mandible where the jaw projects outward were judged to be the least attractive.[30]

A 2011 study, by Wilkins, Chan and Kaiser found correlations between perceived femininity and attractiveness, that is, women's faces which were seen as more feminine were judged by both men and women to be more attractive.[31]

A component of the female beauty ideal in Persian literature is for women to have faces like a full moon.[14][32][33]

In Arabian society in the Middle Ages, a component of the female beauty ideal was for women to have round faces which were like a "full moon".[15]

In Japan, during the Edo period, a component of the female beauty ideal was for women to have long and narrow faces which were shaped like ovals.[17]

In Jewish Rabbinic literature（英語版）, the rabbis considered full lips to be the ideal type of lips for women.[16]

Historically, in Chinese and Japanese literature, the feminine ideal was said to include small lips.[34] Women would paint their lips thinner and narrower to align with this ideal.[35][36]

Classical Persian literature, paintings, and miniatures portrayed traits such as long black curly hair, a small mouth, long arched eyebrows, large almond shaped eyes, a small nose, and beauty spots as being beautiful for women.[37]

Eyes

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Through the East Asian blepharoplasty（英語版） cosmetic surgery procedure, Asian women can permanently alter the structure of their eyelid. Some people have argued that this alteration is done to resemble the structure of a Western eyelid[38] while other people have argued that this is generally done solely to emulate the appearance of naturally occurring Asian double eyelids.[39]

A study that investigated whether or not an eyelid crease makes Chinese-descent women more attractive using photo-manipulated photographs of young Chinese-descent women's eyes found that the "medium upper eyelid crease" was considered most attractive by all three groups of both sexes: white people, Chinese and Taiwanese nationals together as a group, and Taiwanese and Chinese Americans together as a group. Similarly, all three groups of both genders found the absence of an eye crease to be least attractive on Chinese women.[40]

In the late sixteenth century, Japanese people considered epicanthic folds to be beautiful.[41]

A study that used Russian, American, Brazilian, Aché（英語版）, and Hiwi（英語版） raters, found that the only strong distinguisher between men and women's faces was wider eyes relative to facial height for women, and this trait consistently predicted attractiveness ratings for women.[42]

In Arabian society in the Middle Ages, a component of the female beauty ideal was for women to have dark black eyes which are large and long and in the shape of almonds. Furthermore, the eyes should be lustrous, and they should have long eyelashes.[15]

A source written in 1823, said that a component of the Persian female beauty ideal was for women to have large eyes which are black in color.[32] In Persian literature, beautiful women are said to have eyes that are shaped like almonds.[14]

In Chinese, the phrase "lucent irises, lustrous teeth" (中国語: 明眸皓齒) is used to describe a beautiful woman with "clear eyes" and "well-aligned, white teeth", and the phrase "moth-feeler eyebrows" (中国語: 蛾眉) is used to denote a beautiful woman by describing her eyebrows as being thin and arched like moth antennae. In the Chinese text "The Grotto of the Immortals" (中国語: 遊仙窟) written during the Tang dynasty period, narrow eyes were the preferred type of eyes for women, and, in the Chinese text "Jeweled Chamber Secrets" (中国語: 玉房秘訣) from the Six Dynasties period, the ideal woman was described as having small eyes.[17]

In Japan, during the Edo period, one piece of evidence, the appearance of the "formal wife" of Tokugawa Iesada as determined by "bone anthropologist" Suzuki Hisashi, indicates that large eyes were considered attractive for women, but, another piece of evidence, the 1813 Japanese text "Customs, Manners, and Fashions of the Capital" (日本語: 都風俗化粧伝), indicates that large eyes were not considered attractive for women.[17]

Youthfulness

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→「Age disparity in sexual relationships」も参照

Cross-cultural data shows that the reproductive success of women is tied to their youth and physical attractiveness[43] such as the pre-industrial Sami where the most reproductively successful women were 15 years younger than their man.[44] One study covering 37 cultures showed that, on average, a woman was 2.5 years younger than her male partner, with the age difference in Nigeria and Zambia being at the far extreme of 6.5 to 7.5 years. As men age, they tend to seek a mate who is ever younger.[2]

25% of eHarmony's male customers over the age of 50 request to only be matched with women younger than 40.[45] A 2010 OkCupid study, of 200,000 users found that female desirability to its male users peaks at age 21, and falls below the average for all women at 31. After age 26, men have a larger potential dating pool than women on the site; and by age 48, their pool is almost twice as large. The median 31-year-old male user searches for women aged 22 to 35, while the median 42-year-old male searches for women 27 to 45. The age skew is even greater with messages to other users; the median 30-year-old male messages teenage girls as often as women his own age, while mostly ignoring women a few years older than him. Excluding the 10% most and 10% least beautiful of women, however, women's attractiveness does not change between 18 and 40, but if extremes are not excluded "There's no doubt that younger [women] are more physically attractive—indeed in many ways beauty and youth are inextricable. That's why most of the models you see in magazines are teenagers".[46]

Pheromones (detected by female hormone markers) reflects female fertility and the reproductive value mean.[47] As females age, the estrogen-to-androgen production ratio changes and results in female faces to appear more and more masculine (thus appearing less "attractive").[47] In a small (n=148) study performed in the United States, using male college students at one university, the mean age expressed as ideal for a wife was found to be 16.87 years old, while 17.76 was the mean ideal age for a brief sexual encounter. However, the study sets up a framework where "taboos against sex with young girls" are purposely diminished, and biased their sample by removing any participant over the age of 30, with a mean participant age of 19.83.[48] In a study of penile tumescence, men were found most aroused by pictures of young adult females.[49]

Signals of fertility in women are often also seen as signals of youth. The evolutionary perspective proposes the idea that when it comes to sexual reproduction, the minimal parental investment required by men gives them the ability and want to simply reproduce 'as much as possible.'[50] It therefore makes sense that men are attracted to the features in women which signal youthfulness, and thus fertility.[50] Their chances of reproductive success are much higher than they would be should they pick someone older—and therefore less fertile.

This may explain why combating age declines in attractiveness occurs from a younger age in women than in men. For example, the removal of one's body hair is considered a very feminine thing to do.[51] This can be explained by the fact that aging results in raised levels of testosterone and thus, body hair growth. Shaving reverts one's appearance to a more youthful stage[51] and although this may not be an honest signal, men will interpret this as a reflection of increased fertile value. Research supports this, showing hairlessness to considered sexually attractive by men.[52]

Breasts

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→「Breast fetishism」も参照

Research has shown that most heterosexual men enjoy the sight of female breasts,[53] with a preference for large, firm breasts.[54] However, a contradictory study of British undergraduates found younger men preferred small breasts on women.[55] Smaller breasts were widely associated with youthfulness.[56] Cross-culturally, another study found "high variability" regarding the ideal breast size.[55] Some researchers in the United Kingdom have speculated that a preference for larger breasts may have developed in Western societies because women with larger breasts tend to have higher levels of the hormones estradiol and progesterone, which both promote fertility.[57]

A study by Groyecka et al., in which they examined Poles and Yali of New Guinea, demonstrated that men judgements of breast appearance is affected by the occurrence of breast ptosis (i.e., sagginess, droopiness).[58] Greater breast ptosis (more sagging breasts) is perceived as less attractive and attributed to a woman of older age. These findings are coherent with previous research that link breast attractiveness with female youthfulness. Unlike breast size, breast ptosis seems to be a universal marker of female breast attractiveness.

A study showed that men prefer symmetrical breasts.[1][59] Breast symmetry may be particularly sensitive to developmental disturbances and the symmetry differences for breasts are large compared to other body parts. Women who have more symmetrical breasts tend to have more children.[60]

Historical literature often includes specific features of individuals or a gender that are considered desirable. These have often become a matter of convention, and should be interpreted with caution. In Arabian society in the Middle Ages, a component of the female beauty ideal was for women to have small breasts.[15] In Persian literature, beautiful women are said to have breasts like pomegranates or lemons.[14] In the Chinese text "Jeweled Chamber Secrets" (中国語: 玉房秘訣) from the Six Dynasties period, the ideal woman was described as having firm breasts.[17] In Sanskrit literature（英語版）, beautiful women are often said to have breasts so large that they cause the women to bend a little bit from their weight.[61] In Middle English literature, beautiful women should have small breasts that are round like an apple or a pear.[62]

Buttocks

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→詳細は「Cultural history of the buttocks」を参照
 
This drawing is a remake of a drawing used in an experiment to research what South African, British Caucasian and British African men considered to be the most attractive size of posterior and breasts for white and black women. This image only shows the two extreme variations of size on black female figures used in the experiment. The figure at left received the highest average attractiveness rating from South African men while a figure with an intermediate size received the highest ratings from both British African and British Caucasian men. The figure at right did not receive the highest average attractiveness rating from any group.[63]

Biological anthropologist Helen E. Fisher（英語版） of the Center for Human Evolution Studies in the Department of Anthropology of Rutgers University said that, "perhaps, the fleshy, rounded buttocks... attracted males during rear-entry intercourse."[64] In a recent study, using 3D models and eye-tracking technology Fisher's claim was tested and was shown that the slight thrusting out of a woman's back influence how attractive others perceive her to be and captures the gaze of both men and women.[65][66] Bobbi S. Low et al. of the School of Natural Resources and Environment at the University of Michigan, said the female "buttocks evolved in the context of females competing for the attention and parental commitment of powerful resource-controlling males" as an "honest display of fat reserves" that could not be confused with another type of tissue,[67] although T. M. Caro（英語版）, professor in the Center for Population Biology and the Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Conservation Biology, at University of California, Davis, rejected that as being a necessary conclusion, stating that female fatty deposits on the hips improve "individual fitness of the female", regardless of sexual selection.[67]In a 1995 study, black men were more likely than white men to use the words "big" or "large" to describe their conception of an attractive woman's posterior.[68]

Body mass

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Body Mass Index (BMI) is an important determinant to the perception of beauty.[69] Even though the Western ideal is for a thin woman, some cultures prefer plumper women,[21][70] which has been argued to support that attraction for a particular BMI merely is a cultural artifact.[70] The attraction for a proportionate body also influences an appeal for erect posture（英語版）.[71] One cross-cultural survey comparing body-mass preferences among 300 of the most thoroughly studied cultures in the world showed that 81% of cultures preferred a female body size that in English would be described as "plump".[72]

Availability of food influences which female body size is attractive which may have evolutionary reasons. Societies with food scarcities prefer larger female body size than societies that have plenty of food. In Western society males who are hungry prefer a larger female body size than they do when not hungry.[73]

BMI has been criticised for conflating fat and muscle, and more recent studies have concentrated on body composition. Among Australian university students, the most attractive body composition for women (10.31 kg fat, 42.45 kg muscle) was found to be lower in fat than both the most healthy appearing composition, and below the healthy range.[74]

In the United States, women overestimate men's preferences for thinness in a mate. In one study, American women were asked to choose what their ideal build was and what they thought the build most attractive to men was. Women chose slimmer than average figures for both choices. When American men were independently asked to choose the female build most attractive to them, the men chose figures of average build. This indicates that women may be misled as to how thin men prefer women to be.[70] Some speculate that thinness as a beauty standard is one way in which women judge each other[28] and that thinness is viewed as prestigious for within-gender evaluations of other women.[要出典] A reporter surmised that thinness is prized among women as a "sign of independence, strength and achievement."[28] Some implicated the fashion industry for the promulgation of the notion of thinness as attractive.[75]

East Asians have historically preferred women whose bodies had small features. For example, during the Spring and Autumn period of Chinese history, women in Chinese harems wanted to have a thin body in order to be attractive for the Chinese emperor. Later, during the Tang Dynasty, a less thin body type was seen as most attractive for Chinese women.[76] In Arabian society in the Middle Ages, a component of the female beauty ideal was for women to be slender like a "cane" or a "twig".[15] In the Chinese text "Jeweled Chamber Secrets" (中国語: 玉房秘訣) from the Six Dynasties period, the ideal woman was described as not being "large-boned".[17]

In the Victorian era, women who adhered to Victorian ideals were expected to limit their food consumption to attain the ideal slim figure.[77] In Middle English literature, "slender" women are considered beautiful.[62]

Waist–hip ratio

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→詳細は「Waist–hip ratio」を参照
 
Measurement of waist hip ratio: In a lean person (left), the waist can be measured at its narrowest point, while for a person with convex waist (right), it may be measured at about one inch[78] above the navel. The hip is measured at its widest portion of the buttocks at left, and at the greater trochanter（英語版）s at right.

A WHR of 0.7 for women has been shown to correlate strongly with general health and fertility（英語版）. Women within the 0.7 range have optimal levels of estrogen and are less susceptible to major diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, and ovarian cancers.[79] Women with high WHR (0.80 or higher) have significantly lower pregnancy rates than women with lower WHRs (0.70–0.79), independent of their BMIs.[80][81] Female waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) has been proposed by evolutionary psychologists to be an important component of human male mate choice, because this trait is thought to provide a reliable cue to a woman's reproductive value.[82]

Both men and women judge women with smaller waist-to-hip ratios more attractive.[83] Ethnic groups vary with regard to their ideal waist-to-hip ratio for women,[84] ranging from 0.6 in China,[85] to 0.8 or 0.9 in parts of South America and Africa,[86][87][88] and divergent preferences based on ethnicity, rather than nationality, have also been noted.[89][90] A study found the Machiguenga people（英語版）, an isolated indigenous South American ethnic group, prefer women with high WHR (0.9).[91] The preference for heavier women, has been interpreted to belong to societies where there is no risk of obesity.[92]

In Chinese, the phrase "willow waist" (中国語: 柳腰) is used to denote a beautiful woman by describing her waist as being slender like a willow branch.[17]

In the Victorian era, a small waist was considered the main trait of a beautiful woman.[77] The term "wasp waist（英語版）" describes an extreme fashion silhouette, produced by a style of corset and girdle.

Height

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Most men tend to be taller than their female partners.[93] It has been found that, in Western societies, most men prefer shorter women. Having said this, height is a more important factor for a woman when choosing a man than it is for a man choosing a woman.[94] Men tend to view taller women as less attractive,[95] and people view heterosexual couples where the woman is taller to be less ideal.[95] Women who are 0.7 to 1.7 standard deviations below the mean female height have been reported to be the most reproductively successful,[96] since fewer tall women get married compared to shorter women.[95] However, in other ethnic groups, such as the Hadza（英語版）, study has found that height is irrelevant in choosing a mate.[97]

In Middle English literature, 'tallness' is a characteristic of ideally beautiful women.[62]

Leg-to-body ratio

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This drawing of two female figures is a remake of the drawing of the leg-to-body ratio (LBR) extremes used in the experiment by Swami et al. (2006) to find out what LBR is considered the most attractive. The female figure with the lowest LBR and shortest legs at left had the lowest average attractiveness ratings whereas the figure with the highest LBR and longest legs at right had the highest average attractiveness ratings from both British men and women.[98]

A study using Polish participants by Sorokowski found 5% longer legs than average person leg to body ratio for both on man and woman was considered most attractive.[99] The study concluded this preference might stem from the influence of leggy runway models.[100] Another study using British and American participants, found "mid-ranging" leg-to-body ratios to be most ideal.[101]

A study by Swami et al. of British male and female undergraduates showed a preference for men with legs as long as the rest of their body and women with 40% longer legs than the rest of their body.[98] The researcher concluded that this preference might be influenced by American culture where long legged women are portrayed as more attractive.[98]

Marco Bertamini criticized the Swami et al. study for using a picture of the same person with digitally altered leg lengths which he felt would make the modified image appear unrealistic.[102] Bertamini also criticized the Swami study for only changing the leg length while keeping the arm length constant.[102] After accounting for these concerns in his own study, Bertamini's study which used stick figures also found a preference for women with proportionately longer legs than men.[102] When Bertamini investigated the issue of possible sexual dimorphism of leg length, he found two sources that indicated that men usually have slightly proportionately longer legs than women or that differences in leg length proportion may not exist between men and women.[102] Following this review of existing literature on the subject, he conducted his own calculations using data from 1774 men and 2208 women. Using this data, he similarly found that men usually have slightly proportionately longer legs than women or that differences in leg length proportion may not exist between men and women. These findings made him rule out the possibility that a preference for women with proportionately longer legs than men is due proportionately longer legs being a secondary sex characteristic of women.[102]

Feet size

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According to some studies, most men prefer women with small feet,[103][104] such as in ancient China where foot binding was practiced.[105]

In Jewish Rabbinic literature（英語版）, the rabbis considered small feet to be the ideal type of feet for women.[16]

Hair

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Men have been found to prefer long-haired women.[2][106][107] An evolutionary psychology explanation for this is that malnutrition and deficiencies in minerals and vitamins causes loss of hair or hair changes. Hair therefore indicates health and nutrition during the last 2–3 years. Lustrous hair is also often a cross-cultural preference.[56]

A component of the female beauty ideal in Persian literature is for women to have black hair,[14] which was also preferred in Arabian society in the Middle Ages.[15] In Middle English literature, curly hair is a necessary component of a beautiful woman.[62]

Genitalia

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Evidence from various cultures suggests that heterosexual men tend to find the sight of women's genitalia to be sexually arousing.[108]

Movement patterns

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The way an individual moves can indicate health and even age and influence attractiveness.[56] A study reflecting the views of 700 individuals and that involved animated representations of people walking, found that the physical attractiveness of women increased by about 50 percent when they walked with a hip sway. Similarly, the perceived attractiveness of males doubled when they moved with a swagger in their shoulders.[109]

Skin color and radiance

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→詳細は「Human skin color § Social status and racism」を参照
 
Les Deux Perles (The two pearls, 1889). This painting was intended to "contrast a Caucasian with an African beauty". In the painting, the black woman represents the beauty of a black pearl and the white woman represents the beauty of a white pearl.[110]

A preference for lighter-skinned women has been documented across many cultures.[111][112] A 2010 study found a preference for lighter-skinned women in New Zealand and California.[113] In parts of Africa and Asia, skin bleaching（英語版） is common.[114] The universality of this preference however has been questioned by a 2006 study on men of the Bikosso（英語版） tribe in Cameroon which found no consistent preference for either lighter or darker skinned women.[115] The relationship between attractiveness and skin colour may also intersect with ethnicity and prior experience.[116]

Skin color preferences may shift over time, as in Western culture, where tanned skin used to be associated with the sun-exposed manual labor of the lower-class, but since the mid-20th century it has generally been considered more attractive and healthier than before, with sun tanning becoming fashionable.[117][118][119][120][121]

Skin radiance or glowing skin may influence perception of beauty and physical attractiveness.[122][123]

Fertility-driven attractiveness

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There are some subtle changes in women's perceived attractiveness across the menstrual cycle（英語版）. During their most fertile phase（英語版）, we can observe some changes in women's behavior and physiology. A study conducted by G. Miller (2007) examined the amount of tip earnings by lap dancers across the menstrual cycle. He found that dancers received nearly 15 USD more when they were near ovulation than during the rest of the month. This suggests that women either are more attractive during ovulation phase, or they experience a significant change in their behavior.[124] Some other studies have found that there are subtle differences in women's faces when in their fertile（英語版） phase. Bobst and Lobmaier (2012) created 20 prototyped photographs, some of a female during ovulation and some during the luteal phase. Men were asked to choose the more attractive, the more caring and the more flirtatious faces. They found a significant preference for the follicular phase（英語版） (ovulation). This suggests that subtle shape differences in faces occurring during the female's ovulation phase are sufficient to attract men more.[125] This idea is supported by another study, where a similar experiment was done. Men and women had to judge photographs of women's faces taken during their fertile phase（英語版）. They were all rated more attractive than during non-fertile phase. They are some subtle visible cues to ovulation in women's faces, and they are perceived as more attractive, leading to the idea that it could be an adaptive mechanism to raise a female's mate value at that specific time (when probability of conception is at its highest).[124]

Women's attractiveness, as perceived by men and women, slightly differs across her menstrual cycle, being at peak when she is in her ovulation phase. Jones et al. (2008), focused on women's preferences for masculinity, apparent health and self-resemblance and found that it varies across the cycle. They explained that the function of the effects of menstrual cycle phase on preferences for apparent health and self-resemblance in faces is to increase the likelihood of pregnancy.[126]

Similarly, female prefer the scent of symmetrical men（英語版） and masculine faces during fertile phases as well as stereotypical male displays such as social presence, and direct intrasexual competitiveness.[127]

During the follicular phase (fertile), females prefer more male's traits (testosterone dependent traits such as face shape) than when in non-fertile phase. Those findings have been found in the voice, showing that females’ preferences for more masculine voices over feminine voices increase the fertile phase of the menstrual cycle.[128]

But not only females' preferences vary across cycle, their behaviours as well. Effectively, men respond differently to females when they are on ovulatory cycle,[124] because females act differently. Women in the ovulatory phase are flirtier with males showing genetic fitness markers than in low fertile phase.[129] It has been shown in some studies that women high in estrogen are generally perceived to be more attractive than women with low levels of estrogen, based on women not wearing make-up. High estrogen level women may also be viewed as healthier or to have a more feminine face.[130]

Similarly, a study investigated the capacity of women to select high quality males based on their facial attractiveness. They found that facial attractiveness correlated with semen quality (good, normal, or bad depending on sperm（英語版） morphology and motility). The more attractive a man's face is, linked to his sperm being of better quality.[131]

Sexual ornamentation

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Sexual ornament（英語版）s are seen in many organisms; in humans, females have sexual ornamentation in the form of breasts and buttocks. The physical attraction to sexual ornaments is associated with gynoid fat（英語版）, as opposed to android fat（英語版）, which is considered unattractive.[132] In human females, proximate causes of the development of sexual ornaments are associated with the predominance of estrogen in puberty. The activation of estrogen receptors around the female skeletal tissue causes gynoid fat to be deposited in the breasts, buttocks, hips and thighs, producing an overall typical female body shape.[133] Specifically, female breasts are considered more attractive when symmetrical, rather than asymmetrical,[134] as this is thought to reflect good developmental stability（英語版）.[135]

Sexual ornaments are considered attractive features as they are thought to indicate high mate value, fertility,[136] and the ability to provide good care to offspring. They are sexually selected traits present for the purpose of honest signalling（英語版） and capturing the visual attention of the opposite sex, most commonly associated with females capturing the visual attention of males. It has been proposed that these ornaments have evolved in order to advertise personal quality and reproductive value（英語版）.[137] Honest signalling with sexual ornaments is associated with ultimate causation of these evolved traits. The evolution of these ornaments is also associated with female-female competition in order to gain material benefits provided by resourceful and high status males.[51] In humans, once these sexual ornaments develop, they are permanent. It is thought that this is associated with the long-term pair bonding humans engage in; human females engage in extended sexual activity outside of their fertile period.[138] This relates to another ultimate cause of sexual ornaments with function in obtaining non-genetic material benefits from males. In other animal species, even other primate species, these advertisements of reproductive value are not permanent. Usually, it is the point at which the female is at her most fertile, she displays sexual swelling（英語版）s.[139]

Adolescence is the period of time whereby humans experience puberty, and experience anatomical changes to their bodies through the increase of sex hormones released in the body. Adolescent exaggeration is the period of time at which sexual ornaments are maximised, and peak gynoid fat content is reached.[51] In human females, the mean age for this is approximately 16 years. Female breasts develop at this stage not only to prepare for reproduction, but also due to competition with other females in displaying their reproductive value and quality to males.[51]

Possible gender differences for preferences

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For both men and women, there appear to be universal criteria of attractiveness both within and across cultures and ethnic groups.[140][141] When considering long term relationships, some studies have found that men place a higher emphasis on physical attractiveness in a partner than women do.[142][143][144][145][146] On the other hand, some studies have found few differences between men and women in terms of the weight they place on physical characteristics when they are choosing partners for short-term relationships,[147][148][149][150] in particular with regard to their implicit, as opposed to explicitly articulated, preferences.[151] Other recent studies continue to find sex differences for long-term relationships.[152][153][154][149] There is also one study suggesting that only men, not women, place greater priority on bodily compared to facial attractiveness when looking for a short-term as compared to a long-term partner.[155]

 
Bangladeshi（英語版） bride exemplifying wedding day beauty

Some evolutionary psychologists, including David Buss, have argued that this long-term relationship difference may be a consequence of ancestral humans who selected partners based on secondary sexual characteristics, as well as general indicators of fitness which allowed for greater reproductive success as a result of higher fertility in those partners,[156] although a male's ability to provide resources for offspring was likely signaled less by physical features.[144] It is argued that the most prominent indicator of fertility in women is youth,[157][158][159] while the traits in a man which enhance reproductive success are proxies for his ability to accrue resources and protect.[159]

Studies have shown that women pay greater attention to physical traits than they do directly to earning capability or potential to commit,[160] including muscularity, fitness and masculinity of features; the latter preference was observed to vary during a woman's period, with women preferring more masculine features during the late-follicular (fertile) phase of the menstrual cycle.[161][162] Additionally, women process physical attractiveness differently, paying attention to both individual features and the aesthetic effect of the whole face.[163] A 2003 study in the area concluded that heterosexual women are about equally aroused when viewing men or women. Heterosexual men were only aroused by women. This study verified arousal in the test subjects by connecting them to brain imaging devices.[164][165][166][167] Notably, the same study reported arousal for women upon viewing animals mating.

Bonnie Adrian's book, Framing the Bride, discusses the emphasis Taiwanese brides place on physical attractiveness for their wedding photographs. Globalization and western ideals of beauty have spread and have become more prevalent in Asian societies where brides go through hours of hair and makeup to "transform everyday women with their individual characteristics into generic look-alike beauties in three hours' time." These brides go through hours of makeup to transform themselves into socially constructed beauty.[168]

According to strategic pluralism theory, men may have correspondingly evolved to pursue reproductive strategies that are contingent on their own physical attractiveness. More physically attractive men accrue reproductive benefits from spending more time seeking multiple mating partners and relatively less time investing in offspring. In contrast, the reproductive effort of physically less attractive men, who therefore will not have the same mating opportunities, is better allocated either to investing heavily in accruing resources, or investing in their mates and offspring and spending relatively less time seeking additional mates.[169]

Facial similarity and racial preferences

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→「Sexual racism」も参照

Several studies have suggested that people are generally attracted to people who look like them（英語版）,[170] and they generally evaluate faces that exhibit features of their own ethnic or racial group as being more attractive.[107] Although both men and women use children's "facial resemblance" to themselves in "attractiveness judgments," a greater percentage of women in one study (37% n=30) found hypothetical children whose faces were "self-morphs" of themselves as most attractive when compared to men (30% n=23).[171] The more similar a judged person is toward the judging person, the more the former is liked. However, this effect can be reversed. This might depend on how attractiveness is conceptualized: similar members (compared to dissimilar ones) of the opposite sex are judged as more likable in a prosocial sense. Again, findings are more ambiguous when looking for the desiring, pleasure related component of attractiveness.[172] This might be influenced by the measure one uses (subjective ratings can differ from the way one actually reacts) and by situational factors: while men usually prefer women whose face resembles their own, this effect can reverse under stress, when dissimilar females are preferred.[173]

A study by R. E. Hall in 2008, which examined determinations of physical attractiveness by having subjects look at the faces of women, found that race was sometimes a factor in these evaluations.[174] In 2011, two studies found evidence that the ethnicity of a face influenced how attractive it was judged to be.[175][176] A 2014 study by Tsunokai, McGrath and Kavanagh based on data from a dating website, the authors cited race as a factor in dating preferences by Asian-American men, both homosexual and heterosexual.[177] A 2013 study found only weak support for the view that people prefer the faces of those racially similar to themselves.[178]

Social effects

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Perceptions of physical attractiveness contribute to generalized assumptions based on those attractions. Individuals assume that when someone is beautiful, then they have many other positive attributes that make the attractive person more likeable.[179] This is referred to as the halo effect, also known as the 'beautiful-is-good' effect.[179] Across cultures, what is beautiful is assumed to be good; attractive people are assumed to be more extroverted, popular, and happy. This could lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy（英語版）, as, from a young age, attractive people receive more attention that helps them develop these characteristics.[180][181] In one study, beautiful people were found to be generally happier than less beautiful or plain people, perhaps because these outgoing personality traits are linked to happiness, or perhaps because beauty led to increased economic benefits which partially explained the increased happiness.[12] In another study testing first impressions（英語版） in 56 female and 17 male participants at University of British Columbia, personality traits of physically attractive people were identified more positively and more accurately than those who were less physically attractive. It was explained that people pay closer attention to those they find physically beautiful or attractive, and thus perceiving attractive individuals with greater distinctive accuracy. The study believes this accuracy to be subjective to the eye of the beholder.[182] Recent results from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study（英語版） confirmed the positive link between psychological well-being（英語版） and attractiveness (higher facial attractiveness, lower BMI) and also found the complementary negative association with distress/depression. Even though connections and confounds with other variables could not be excluded, the effects of attractiveness in this study were the same size as the ones for other demographic variables.[183]

In developed western societies, women tend to be judged for their physical appearance over their other qualities and the pressure to engage in beauty work is much higher for women than men. Beauty work is defined as various beauty “practices individuals perform on themselves or others to elicit certain benefits from a specific social hierarchy.”[184] Being “beautiful” has individual, social and institutional rewards.[184] Although marketers have started to _target the “metro-sexual” male and produce hygiene and beauty products geared towards men, the expectations placed on them is less than women[185] The time and money required for a man to achieve the same well-groomed appearance is much lower. Even in areas that men also face pressure to perform beauty work, such a haircuts/styling, the prices discrepancy for products and services are skewed. This phenomenon is called the "pink tax（英語版）."[186][187]

However, attractiveness varies by society; in ancient China foot binding was practiced by confining young girls' feet in tightly bound shoes to prevent the feet from growing to normal size causing the women to have an attractive "lotus gait". In England, women used to wear corsets that severely constricted their breathing and damaged vital internal organs, in order to achieve a visual effect of an exaggeratedly low waist-to-hip ratio.

People make judgments of physical attractiveness based on what they see, but also on what they know about the person. Specifically, perceptions of beauty are malleable such that information about the person's personality traits can influence one's assessment of another person's physical beauty. A 2007 study had participants first rate pictures for attractiveness. After doing distracting math problems, participants saw the pictures again, but with information about the person's personality. When participants learned that a person had positive personality characteristics (e.g., smart, funny, kind), that person was seen as more physically attractive.[188] Conversely, a person with negative personality characteristics (e.g., materialistic, rude, untrustworthy) was seen as less physically attractive. This was true for both females and males. A person may be perceived as being more attractive if they are seen as part of a group of friends, rather than alone, according to one study.[189]

Physical attractiveness can have various effects. A survey conducted by London Guildhall University（英語版） of 11,000 people showed that those who subjectively describe themselves as physically attractive earn more income than others who would describe themselves as less attractive.[190] People who described themselves as less attractive earned, on average, 13% less than those who described themselves as more attractive, while the penalty for being overweight was around 5%. According to further research done on the correlation between looks and earnings in men, the punishment for unattractiveness is greater than the benefits of being attractive. However, in women the punishment is found to be equal to the benefits.[191] Another study suggests that more physically attractive people are significantly more likely on average to earn considerably higher wages. Differences in income due to attractiveness was much more pronounced for men rather than women, and held true for all ranges of income.[192]

It is important to note that other factors such as self-confidence may explain or influence these findings as they are based on self-reported attractiveness as opposed to any sort of objective criteria; however, as one's self-confidence and self-esteem are largely learned from how one is regarded by his/her peers while maturing, even these considerations would suggest a significant role for physical appearance. One writer speculated that "the distress created in women by the spread of unattainable ideals of female beauty" might possibly be linked to increasing incidence of depression.[193]

Many have asserted that certain advantages tend to come to those who are perceived as being more attractive, including the ability to get better jobs and promotions; receiving better treatment from authorities and the legal system; having more choices in romantic or platonic partners and, therefore, more power in relationships; and marrying into families with more money.[194][12][180][181][195] Those who are attractive are treated and judged more positively than those who are considered unattractive, even by those who know them. Also, attractive individuals behave more positively than those who are unattractive.[196] One study found that teachers tend to expect that children who are attractive are more intelligent, and are more likely to progress further in school. They also consider these students to be more popular.[197] Voters choose political candidates who are more attractive over those who are less attractive.[198] Men and women use physical attractiveness as a measure of how "good" another person is.[199] In 1946, Soloman Asch coined the Implicit Personality Theory, meaning that the presence of one trait tends to imply the existence of other traits. This is also known as the halo effect. Research suggests that those who are physically attractive are thought to have more socially desirable personalities and lead better lives in general.[200] This is also known as the "what-is-beautiful-is-good effect." Discrimination against or prejudice towards others based on their appearance is sometimes referred to as lookism.

Some researchers conclude that little difference exists between men and women in terms of sexual behavior.[143][201] Other researchers disagree.[202] Symmetrical（英語版） men and women have a tendency to begin to have sexual intercourse at an earlier age, to have more sexual partners, to engage in a wider variety of sexual activities, and to have more one-night stand（英語版）s. They are also prone to infidelity and are more likely to have open relationships.[203] Additionally, they have the most reproductive success（英語版）. Therefore, their physical characteristics are most likely to be inherited by future generations.[204][205][206][207]

Concern for improving physical attractiveness has led many persons to consider alternatives such as cosmetic surgery. It has led scientists working with related disciplines such as computer imaging and mathematics to conduct research to suggest ways to surgically alter the distances between facial features in order to make a face conform more closely to the "agreed-upon standards of attractiveness" of an ideal face by using algorithms to suggest an alternative which still resembles the current face.[208] One research study found that cosmetic surgery as a way to "boost earnings" was "not profitable in a monetary sense."[12] Some research shows that physical attractiveness has a marginal effect on happiness.[209]

関連項目

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*Adornment（英語版）

参考文献

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