Sistem separa-presiden

Sistem separa-presiden atau sistem dwi eksekutif adalah satu sistem kerajaan di mana Presiden wujud bersama Perdana Menteri berserta sebuah kabinet, dengan PM bertanggungjawab pada badan perundangan negara. Ia berbeza dari republik berparlimen kerana ia mempunyai ketua negara yang dipilih secara umum, yang lebih merupakan pemimpin simbolik beristiadat, dan dari sistem berpresiden didalam kabinet tersebut, walaupun dinamakan oleh presiden, adalah bertanggungjawab pada badan perundangan, yang mungkin memaksa kabinet untuk meletakkan jawatan melalui undi tidak percaya.^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]

Walaupun Republik Weimar (1919–1933) mencontohkan sistem separa-presiden yang terawal, istilah "separa-presiden" telah diperkenalkan dalam artikel 1959 oleh wartawan Hubert Beuve-Méry^[5] dan dipopularkan dari karya 1978 oleh saintis politik Maurice Duverger,^[6] kedua-duanya bertujuan untuk menggambarkan Republik Kelima Perancis (ditubuhkan pada tahun 1958).^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]

Lihat juga

Nota dan rujukan

^ ^a ^b Duverger (1980). "A New Political System Model: Semi-Presidential Government". European Journal of Political Research (quarterly). 8 (2): 165–187. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6765.1980.tb00569.x. The concept of a semi-presidential form of government, as used here, is defined only by the content of the constitution. A political regime is considered as semi-presidential if the constitution which established it, combines three elements: (1) the president of the republic is elected by universal suffrage, (2) he possesses quite considerable powers; (3) he has opposite him, however, a prime minister and ministers who possess executive and governmental power and can stay in office only if the parliament does not show its opposition to them.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
^ ^a ^b Veser, Ernst (1997). "Semi-Presidentialism-Duverger's concept: A New Political System Model" (PDF). Journal for Humanities and Social Sciences. 11 (1): 39–60. Dicapai pada 21 August 2017.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
^ ^a ^b Duverger, Maurice (September 1996). "Les monarchies républicaines" [The Republican Monarchies] (PDF). Pouvoirs, revue française d'études constitutionnelles et politiques (dalam bahasa French). No. 78. Paris: Éditions du Seuil. m/s. 107–120. ISBN 2-02-030123-7. ISSN 0152-0768. OCLC 909782158. Dicapai pada 10 September 2016.CS1 maint: postscript (link) CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
^ ^a ^b Bahro, Horst; Bayerlein, Bernhard H.; Veser, Ernst (October 1998). "Duverger's concept: Semi-presidential government revisited". European Journal of Political Research (quarterly). 34 (2): 201–224. doi:10.1111/1475-6765.00405. The conventional analysis of government in democratic countries by political science and constitutional law starts from the traditional types of presidentialism and parliamentarism. There is, however, a general consensus that governments in the various countries work quite differently. This is why some authors have inserted distinctive features into their analytical approaches, at the same time maintaining the general dichotomy. Maurice Duverger, trying to explain the French Fifth Republic, found that this dichotomy was not adequate for this purpose. He therefore resorted to the concept of 'semi-presidential government': The characteristics of the concept are (Duverger 1974: 122, 1978: 28, 1980: 166):
1. the President of the Republic is elected by universal suffrage,
2. he possesses quite considerable powers and
3. he has opposite him a prime minister who possesses executive and governmental powers and can stay in office only if parliament does not express its opposition to him.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
^ Le Monde, 8 January 1959.
^ Duverger, Maurice (1978). Échec au roi. Paris: A. Michel. ISBN 9782226005809.

Bahro, Horst; Bayerlein, Bernhard H.; Veser, Ernst (October 1998). "Duverger's concept: Semi–presidential government revisited". European Journal of Political Research (quarterly). 34 (2): 201–224. doi:10.1111/1475-6765.00405.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
Beuman, Lydia M. (2016). Political Institutions in East Timor: Semi-Presidentialism and Democratisation. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 978-1317362128. LCCN 2015036590 – melalui Google Books.
Canas, Vitalino (2004). "The Semi-Presidential System" (PDF). Zeitschrift für Ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht. 64 (1): 95–124.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
Duverger, Maurice (1978). Échec au roi. Paris: A. Michel. ISBN 9782226005809.
Duverger, Maurice (June 1980). "A New Political System Model: Semi-Presidential Government". European Journal of Political Research (quarterly). 8 (2): 165–187. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6765.1980.tb00569.x.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
Elgie, Robert (2011). Semi-Presidentialism: Sub-Types And Democratic Performance. Comparative Politics. (Oxford Scholarship Online Politics) OUP Oxford ISBN 9780199585984
Frye, Timothy (October 1997). "A Politics of Institutional Choice: Post-Communist Presidencies" (PDF). Comparative Political Studies. 30 (5): 523–552. doi:10.1177/0010414097030005001.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
Goetz, Klaus H. (2006). Heywood, Paul; Jones, Erik; Rhodes, Martin; Sedelmeier (penyunting). Developments in European politics (PDF). Power at the Centre: The Organization of Democratic Systems. Basingstoke England New York: Palgrave Macmillan. m/s. 368. ISBN 9780230000414.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
Lijphart, Arend (1992). Parliamentary versus presidential government. Oxford New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198780441.
Nousiainen, Jaakko (June 2001). "From Semi-presidentialism to Parliamentary Government: Political and Constitutional Developments in Finland". Scandinavian Political Studies (quarterly). 24 (2): 95–109. doi:10.1111/1467-9477.00048. ISSN 0080-6757. OCLC 715091099.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
Passarelli, Gianluca (December 2010). "The government in two semi-presidential systems: France and Portugal in a comparative perspective" (PDF). French Politics. 8 (4): 402–428. doi:10.1057/fp.2010.21. ISSN 1476-3427. OCLC 300271555.
Rhodes, R. A. W. (1995). "From Prime Ministerial power to core executive". Dalam Rhodes, R. A. W.; Dunleavy, Patrick (penyunting). Prime minister, cabinet, and core executive. New York: St. Martin's Press. m/s. 11–37. ISBN 9780333555286.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
Roper, Steven D. (April 2002). "Are All Semipresidential Regimes the Same? A Comparison of Premier-Presidential Regimes". Comparative Politics. 34 (3): 253–272. doi:10.2307/4146953. JSTOR 4146953.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
Sartori, Giovanni (1997). Comparative constitutional engineering: an inquiry into structures, incentives, and outcomes (ed. 2nd). Washington Square, New York: New York University Press. ISBN 9780333675090.
Shoesmith, Dennis (March–April 2003). "Timor-Leste: Divided Leadership in a Semi-Presidential System" (PDF). Asian Survey (bimonthly). 43 (2): 231–252. doi:10.1525/as.2003.43.2.231. ISSN 0004-4687. OCLC 905451085.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
Shugart, Matthew Søberg (September 2005). "Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive and Mixed Authority Patterns" (PDF). Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies. United States: University of California, San Diego. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal (PDF) pada 19 August 2008. Cite journal requires |journal= (bantuan)CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
Shugart, Matthew Søberg (December 2005). "Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns" (PDF). Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies, University of California, San Diego. French Politics. 3 (3): 323–351. doi:10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087. ISSN 1476-3427. OCLC 6895745903.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
Shugart, Matthew Søberg; Carey, John M. (1992). Presidents and assemblies: constitutional design and electoral dynamics. Cambridge England New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521429900.
Veser, Ernst (1997). "Semi-Presidentialism-Duverger's concept: A New Political System Model" (PDF). Journal for Humanities and Social Sciences. 11 (1): 39–60.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)

Nota

Pautan luar

Governing Systems and Executive-Legislative Relations. (Presidential, Parliamentary and Hybrid Systems), United Nations Development Programme (n.d.). Diarkibkan 10 Februari 2010 di Wayback Machine
J. Kristiadi (April 22, 2008). "Indonesia Outlook 2007: Toward strong, democratic governance". The Jakarta Post. PT Bina Media Tenggara. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 21 April 2008.
The Semi-Presidential One, blog of Robert Elgie
Presidential Power blog with posts written by several political scientists, including Robert Elgie.

[Duverger1980-1] Duverger (1980). "A New Political System Model: Semi-Presidential Government". European Journal of Political Research (quarterly). 8 (2): 165–187. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6765.1980.tb00569.x. The concept of a semi-presidential form of government, as used here, is defined only by the content of the constitution. A political regime is considered as semi-presidential if the constitution which established it, combines three elements: (1) the president of the republic is elected by universal suffrage, (2) he possesses quite considerable powers; (3) he has opposite him, however, a prime minister and ministers who possess executive and governmental power and can stay in office only if the parliament does not show its opposition to them.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)

[Veser1997-2] Veser, Ernst (1997). "Semi-Presidentialism-Duverger's concept: A New Political System Model" (PDF). Journal for Humanities and Social Sciences. 11 (1): 39–60. Dicapai pada 21 August 2017.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)

[Pouvoirs1996-3] Duverger, Maurice (September 1996). "Les monarchies républicaines" [The Republican Monarchies] (PDF). Pouvoirs, revue française d'études constitutionnelles et politiques (dalam bahasa French). No. 78. Paris: Éditions du Seuil. m/s. 107–120. ISBN 2-02-030123-7. ISSN 0152-0768. OCLC 909782158. Dicapai pada 10 September 2016.CS1 maint: postscript (link) CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)

[DuvergerRevisited-4] Bahro, Horst; Bayerlein, Bernhard H.; Veser, Ernst (October 1998). "Duverger's concept: Semi-presidential government revisited". European Journal of Political Research (quarterly). 34 (2): 201–224. doi:10.1111/1475-6765.00405. The conventional analysis of government in democratic countries by political science and constitutional law starts from the traditional types of presidentialism and parliamentarism. There is, however, a general consensus that governments in the various countries work quite differently. This is why some authors have inserted distinctive features into their analytical approaches, at the same time maintaining the general dichotomy. Maurice Duverger, trying to explain the French Fifth Republic, found that this dichotomy was not adequate for this purpose. He therefore resorted to the concept of 'semi-presidential government': The characteristics of the concept are (Duverger 1974: 122, 1978: 28, 1980: 166):
1. the President of the Republic is elected by universal suffrage,
2. he possesses quite considerable powers and
3. he has opposite him a prime minister who possesses executive and governmental powers and can stay in office only if parliament does not express its opposition to him.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)

[5] Le Monde, 8 January 1959.

[Duverger1978-6] Duverger, Maurice (1978). Échec au roi. Paris: A. Michel. ISBN 9782226005809.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]