Journalistiek

Journalistiek of verslaglegging dreit um et zo nauwkeurig möggelik maken en verspreiden van verslagen van gebeurtenissen, feiten, ideeën en leu dee 'proat van 'n dag' bint. Een wat zich doarmet gangs höldt neumt ze nen journalist of verslaggevver. Tehoop het et anbod van journalisten en kranten 'de pers', ne verwiezing noar de wiez woarop as kranten drukt wordt. Wat journalisten schrieft veur kranten of tiedschriften, anderen doot meer neis presenteren veur tellevisie.

Wat journalistiek bedudt en in mut holden verschilt te land. Wat landen zit de regering kort op wat media noar boeten brengen majt en is journalistiek nich onofhankelik. In andere landen bint media wa onofhankelik van de regearing, mer zit der weer grote bedrieven achter en geet et veural um geld verdenen an advertenties en leu wat een abonnement hebt. Doarbiej kan et ok nog te land anders ween as et geet um wa'j wa en nich zeggen majt, wat persvriejheid angeet en wat as smaad en laster anmearkt wördt.

In de 21e eeuw is deur komst van online media en mobielkes et weark van journalisten slim veranderd. Neisbedrieven hebt et naar lastig um geld te verdenen met de online kant van et verhaal. Veural biej de olderwetse kranten is de krantverkoop harder in mekaar pleerd as dat de opbrengsten van digitaal neis steggen bint.

Regels

Wat geldt as 'goeien journalistiek' verschilt van land töt land. Deur mekaar geldt dat schrievers, of dat noe journalisten of bloggers bint, zich holdt an een paar stelregels. In völ olderwetse kranten wördt dudelik verschil maakt tusken neis en opiniestukken. Neis mut zovöl möggelik zunder veuroordeel en zo ofwöagen möggelik bracht worden, in opiniestukken majt schrievers de gedachten vriejloaten oawer een onderwearp. Völ neisbedrieven hebt nen road van redakteurs, dee met mekaar ofkuiert wat wal en nich zejd worden mag in ear medium. Bieveurbeeld The New York Times steet der um bekend dat ze der naar kort op zit. Ok bint der wa oawerstiegende kringen, zo as de American Society of News Editors en de Society of Professional Journalists, dee roadgevt oawer goden sier in neisverslagen.

Robert McChesney meent, in nen demokratie gef gezonde journalistiek ne mening oawer de leu wat an de macht bint of dat wilt wean. Der mut een breed anbod an meningen wean en de leu mut zovöl möggelik neis können metkriegen op de wieze wat ear et leefst is.

Der wördt heel wat ofproat of journalisten wa of nich ne mening majt hebben en 'neutraal' mot wean. Der wördt zejd dat journalisten zölf ok onderdeel van de samenleaving bint en zo dus nich onofhankelik könt wean; dat wat ze wa of nich loat zeen kan al as nich-neutraal gelden. Tegeliek mut ze mangs onder groten druk neis maken en is der nich altied tied um alle kanten eaven good biej te löchten. Kump nog biej op dat ieder medium zien veur- en noadelen hef en dat interesses en meningen van leu voortan verandert.

Vörmen

Et gef meerdere vörm van journalistiek en allemoal trekt ze andere leu an. Algemeen geldt journalistiek as nen 'veerden moatstaf'; deur journalisten kriegt de leu met wat de regearing allemoal biej 'n ende hef. In enen oetgaaf (zo as ne krant) stoat meerdere soorten journalistiek in verskillende vörmen. Zo sprekt verschillende onderdelen wier andere leu an.

Fotojournalisten zet Amerikaansen president Barack Obama op et portret in november 2013

Photo and broadcast journalists interviewing a government official after a building collapse in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. March 2013.

Een paar vörmen bint:

• Zendende journalistiek – skrevven of sprökken journalistiek veur radio en tillevisie

  

  Journalists in the Radio-Canada/CBC newsroom in Montreal, Canada

Media greeting Cap Anamur II's Rupert Neudeck in Hamburg, 1986 at a press conference

• Bedriefsjournalistiek – höldt biej en bekik wat de zakenwearld biej 'n ende hef.
• Datajournalistiek – bekik wat ciefers de leu te zeggen hebt. Ok könt ze an de bel trekken as oaverheden met ciefers knooit.
• Onderzeuksjournalistiek – gref deep in onderwearpen dee in de sameleaving spölt um de woarheid boawen te kriegen.
• Fotojournalistiek – woargebeurde verhalen en neiszaken vastleggen met foto's.
• Wettenschopsjournalistiek – wil wettenschoppelik onderzeuk biej de leu brengen en zo good möggelik oetleggen.
• Politieke journalistiek – verslöt allens wat um politiek dreit.
• Sportverslag – allens wat met sport van doon hef.
• Tabloidjournalistiek – ok wa roddelpers neumd. lechthartig en vermakelik neis. Wördt deurgoans nich zo hoog acht as andere journalistiek.
• Oorlogsverslag – deurgevven wat in oorleug en op slagvelden gebeurt.

Sociale media

De opkomst van sociale media hef de journalistiek slim op 'n kop smetten en der is ne neie soort journalisten biej kommen: börgerverslaggevvers. Oet onderzeuk van 2014 bleek at 40% van de deelnemmers ok wal es wat van social media oawernömmen en meer as 20% van de journalisten halen mangs wat van microblogs as Twitter. Der valt oet op te maken at völ neisbrekkers van börgerjournalisten kump, veural van video's en foto's wat leu dee der tovallig biej warren online zet. Alhoowal 69,2% van de ondervroagde journalisten meenden, et zol ear körterbiej ear publiek brengen, vund mer 30% at et ear geleufweerdigheid hulp. Biej ne rondvroag oet 2021 van Pew Research Center bleek at 86% van de Amerikanen neis digitaal binnenkriejt.

Dat hef proateriej op gang bracht of journalistiek nich better onder volksbeheer mut vallen, in stea van lösse artikelen skrevven deur vaste journalisten. Deur disse veranderingen blik oet peilingen at leu olde neisbedrieven stöadig minder geleuft. Oet een onderzeuk van 2014 köm dat mer 22% van de Amerikanen "völ" of "beheurlik wat vertrouwen" in televisieneis of kranten.

Nepneis

Google Trends topic searches for "Fake news" began a substantial increase in late 2016, about the time of the U.S. presidential election.

Nepneis, ok wal "Fake news" neumd, is met opzet onwoare informatie oetbrengen. Op sociale media kan dat rap goan.

Et wördt oetbracht um leazers op et verkeerde been te zetten en ze op valse wiez veur ne zaak, organisatie of persoon te winnen. Een oawerdudelik veurbeeld was de grote veurroad nepneis rond de Amerikaanse presidentsverkiezingen van 2016. Samenzweringstheorieën en leugens wördt rondstuurd asof et echt neis was um kandidoaten te helpen deur anderen zwart te maken. Een veurbeeld doarvan was een verslag van een e-mail van Hillary Clinton, wat compleet oet 'n doem zöggen was, van ne nich-bestoande krant, The Denver Guardian.

Völ leu gavven et Facebook op 'n kop. Dat dreit op een algoritme wat alle daag miljarden redactionele beslissingen nemp en dus ok hoo langer hoo meer nepneis deelden. Sociale media as Facebook, Twitter en TikTok stoat der um bekend dat der met groot gemak nepneis rond geet. Facebook-baas Mark Zuckerberg was et der met eens dat zien bedrief der ne hand in had: in ne verkloaring veur een kommittee van et Juridisch handelssenoat zea hee op 20 april 2018:

Et is noe dudelik da'w te weinig doan hebt um te veurkommen dat disse wearktuug veur kwoade zaken broekt bint. Dat geldt veur nepneis, boetenlandse inmenging in verkiezingen en haatsprekkeriej, mer ok veur ontwikkelaars en beschearming van dataprivacy.

Nen goden moatstaf of neis te vertrouwen is is noakieken of et van een betrouwboar neisbedrief kump.

'n Amerikaansen presidentskandidoat Donald Trump gebreuk vaak de term 'fake news' as der negatieve dingen oaver em oetgövven wörden.

In wat landen, zoas Turkije, Egypte, India, Bangladesh, Iran, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Kenya, Ivoorkuste, Montenegro, Kazakstan, Azerbaijan, Maleisië, Singapore, de Filippienen, en Somalie bint journalisten bedreigd of oppakt as ze zogenaamd nepneis oawer de COVID-19 pandemie oetbrachten.

Op 4 meert 2022 tekenden Russisch president Vladimir Putin nen wet met gevangenisstraffen töt viefteen joar veur leu dee 'met opzet valse informatie' oetbrengt oawer et Russische leager en wat dee biej 'n ende hebt. Wat mediabedrieven in Rusland bint der al met stopt um verslag oawer 'n oorlog in Oekraïne oet te brengen of hebt et spil zelfs helemoal dicht doan. Vanof december 2022 bint al meer as 4000 leu anklaagd wegens de neie nepneiswet veur et brengen van neis oaver Ruslands oorlog met Oekraïne. Minstens 1000 Russische journalisten bint et land al oetvlucht sinds februari 2022.

Geschiedenis

Oldheid

Pas vanof de 17e eeuw begun verslaglegging veur et volk nen vasten vörm te kriegen, mer al tiedens de Han-dynastie in China warren der regelmoatige neisberichten. Dat deu de Venetiaanse Repbuliek ok in de 16e eeuw. Disse neisberichten warren enkel veur regeringsbeambten en konnen nog nich zeen worden as journalistiek zo as vandaag an 'n dag geldt.

Vrogmoderne kranten

Do as 'n drokpers oetvunden wör, konnen verdan mear leu leazen en schrieven en ontstunden de eerste kranten. De eerste verwiezing noar ne krant in eigen beheer stamt oet et China van 1582 tiedens de Ming-dynastie. Johann Carolus zien Relation aller Fürnemmen und gedenckwürdigen Historien, oetgövven in 1605 in Stroatsburg, geldt as de eerste krant in in Europa.

Persvriejheid wör veur et eerst biej wet vastlegd in Groot-Brittannië in 1695. Et eerste Engelse dagblad, the Daily Courant, bestund van 1702 töt 1735. Journalistieke bedrieven warren zelfstandig in biejveurbeeld et Heilige Roomse Riek en et Britse Riek. Andere landen, zo as Frankriek en Pruussen, hölden et strak onder 'n doem. Dee zaggen de krant veurnamelik as propagandakanaal en hölden strak in de gaten wat der skrevven wör. Onder et Russische Riek mossen ze a helemoal niks wetten van journalistiek. Doar was et verböaden töt an midden 19e eeuw. Do as krantenschrieveriej bekender wör, kömmen der verdan vaker wek- of dagbladen. Kranten hadden vake kantoor in handelscentra, zoas Amsterdam, Londen en Berlien. In Latiens-Amerika wörden in de tweede helft van de 19e eeuw de eerste kranten sticht.

Neismedia en revoluties van de 18e en 19e eeuwen

Kranten spölden ne grote rol in et metkriegen van leu veur liberale hervörmingen in de 18e en 19e eeuw. In de Amerikaanse kolonies kömmen leu deur stukken in de krant in opstand teggen de Britten en deurdat pamfletten van revolutionairen as Thomas Paine via kranten deurgevven wörden, terwiel as anhangers van de kroon et juust weer teggen de Amerikaanse Revolutie angungen. De hele 19e eeuw blevven Amerikaanse kranten stokkerige stukken oetgevven. In Frankriek kömmen politieke bladen op onder de Franske Revolutie. De krante L'Ami du peuple, onder redaktie van Jean-Paul Marat, wust veural et algemene denken oaver rechten van de leagere klassen um te dreien. In 1800 voorden Napoleon weer strakken censuur in, mer noa zienen tied bleuiden kranten helemoals op en hadden ne veurname rol in de politieke kultuur. Biej de Revoluties van 1848 dreven radikaal liberale oetgaves zo as de Rheinische Zeitung, Pesti Hírlap en Morgenbladet de leu an um de adellike regeringen in Midden-Europa der achterhen te doon. Andere liberale oetgaves nömmen ne wat verzachtender rol in: Et Russische Bulletin deu Alexander II van Rusland ne vear in et gat um zien liberale hervörmingen van achterin de 19e eeuw. Ze stunden achter de vergrötte politieke en ekonomische vriejheid veur boeren en et invoren van een parlementear stelsel. Meer op links hadden socialistische en kommunistische kranten meer geheur in Frankriek, Rusland en Duutsland, ondanks at de regering ze verbeud.

Veurin de 20e eeuw

China

Journalistiek in China deenden veur 1910 veural de internationale gemeenschop. Et Umsmieten van et olde keizerregime in 1911 veroorzaken nen golf van Chinees nationalisme. Censuur gung der of en leu wollen gedegen professioneel landsbrede journalistiek. Alle grote steaden deuden der an met. Achterin de joaren '20 was 'n andacht versköwwen noar reklame en meer dekking kriegen. Et politieke van de revolutionairen was der wa of.

Frankriek

Noa 'n Eersten Weerldoorlog leaden de kranten oet Paries stil. Der wörden alle daag zes miljoen kranten drukt. Et grötste sukses har Paris Soir, met ne mengeling van sensatiestukken veur de inschrievers en deepgoande artikelen veur et anzeen. Teggen 1939 had et 1,7 miljoen abonnees, dubbel zovöl as zien noaste rivaal, de rapkrant Le Petit Parisien. Boawenop et dagblad Paris Soir had et ok nog een populair tiedschrift veur vrouwleu, Marie-Claire. Et blad Match mos een Frans antwoord wean op et Amerikaanse fotojournaal Life.

Groot-Brittanje

Teggen 1900 richten journalistiek in Groot-Brittanje zich op een zo groot möggelik publiek. Doar heuren ok de arbeiders biej. Dat sleug good an en der wör dikke verdeend an reklames en advertenties. Alfred Harmsworth, Eersten Borggraaf van Northcliffe (1865-1922) "gavven meer as wee dan ok de moderne pers vörm. Ziene ontwikkelingen en ideeën wordt nog aait broekt: breed anbod van onderwearpen, inzetten op hoge winst oet advertenties um krantenpriezen te drukken, opdringerig reklamemaken, ok strekgebunden neis, gin inmenging van poltieke partiejen. Zienen Daily Mail had de heugste oplaag töt an zienen dood. Eersten minister Lord Salisbury grappen dat et was "skrevven deur kantoorjongs veur kantoorjongs".

Et 'Neike van de eeuw' was veur domoals beginnend journaliste Clare Hollingworth, dee in 1939 veur de Daily Telegraph as eerste verslag deu van 'n Tweeden Weerldoorlog. Onderweggens van Polen noar Duutsland zag zee nen groten macht Duutse troppen biej mekaar an de Poolse grens. Met sukelaletters op et veurblad kopten The Daily Telegraph: "1,000 tanks massed on Polish border"; dree daag later was zee de eerste wat verslag deu van 'n Duutsen inval in Polen.

Onder 'n Tweeden Weerldoorlog wearkten George Orwell zövven joar as journalist biej The Observer. Hee skreef een essay Politiek en de Engelse Sproake (woarin as he ofwearken met vaag en umslachtig taalgebroek). Redakteur David Astor gavven et joarenlang an iederen neien journalist met as richtlien. In 2003 skreef Robert McCrum, literear redakteur biej deezelfde krant: "Zelfs noe haalt wiej em der nog wal es biej in onzen stielgids".

India

De eerste krant van India, de Hicky's Bengal Gazette, wör veur et eerst oetgövven op 29 januari 1780. Dit blad höl et nich meer as twee joar vol, mer was wa deurslaggevvend veur et ontstoan van moderne journalistiek in India. Et idee van ne krant dreef völ opvolgers um et ok te proberen. De meesten kömmen nich boawen de 400 exemplaren in de wek, en skrevven oawer lokaal neis. Advertenties warren ok veur lokale produkten. In de 19e eeuw wörden kranten in et Engels oetgövven veur Indiaërs dee dat sprökken. Sproak was sowieso een lastig ding, umdat in India meer as 700 sproaken kuierd wordt. Oetendelik wör Engels de lingua franca van et land. Een van de eesten wat doarvan profiteren was de Bengal Gazette van Gangadhar Bhattacharyya in 1816.

Verennigde Stoaten

Achterin de 19e en veurin de 20e eeuw begunnen in de Verennigde Stoaten grote mediabedrieven op te kommen, zo as van William Randoph Hearst en Joseph Pulizer. Amerikaanse kranten kregen deur dat ze völ meer verkochten as ze nich eenziedig oawer politiek skrevven. Doardeur konnen ze völ meer verdenen an advertenties. Vanof dissen tied hadden kranten verdan gröttere koppen en sensatieartikelen. Ne krant oetgevven most professioneler en der wör ok meer andacht gevven an schriefkwaliteit en arbeidsdiscipline. Ok wör persvriejheid biej wet vastlejd. President Theodore Roosevelt kreg et nich veur mekaar um kranten an te klagen veur ear verslagen van umkeuperiej rond 'n anschaf van et Panamakanaal.

Mer der is ok een teggengeluud. Al kan de regering weinig oetrichten teggen wat de pers schrif, toch meent wat leu dat de Amerikaanse journalistiek zichzölf inperkt, deurdat de meeste grote kranten en media in handen bint van grote bedrieven, dee weer nen hand in de regering hebt.

African-American press

The rampant discrimination and segregation against African-Americans led to the founding their own daily and weekly newspapers, especially in large cities. While the first Black newspapers in America were established in the early 19th century, in the 20th century these newspapers truly flourished in major cities, with publishers playing a major role in politics and business affairs. Representative leaders included Robert Sengstacke Abbott (1870–1940), publisher of the Chicago Defender; John Mitchell Jr. (1863–1929), editor of the Richmond Planet and president of the National Afro-American Press Association; Anthony Overton (1865–1946), publisher of the Chicago Bee, and Robert Lee Vann (1879–1940), the publisher and editor of the Pittsburgh Courier.

College

Although it is not completely necessary to have attended college to be a journalist, over the past few years it has become more common to attend. With this becoming more popular, jobs are starting to require a degree to be hired. The first school of Journalism opened as part of the University of Missouri in 1908. In the History Of Journalism page, it goes into depth on how journalism has evolved into what it is today. As of right now, there are a couple different routes one can take if interested in journalism. If one wanting to expand their skills as a journalist, there are many college courses and workshops one can take. If going the full college route, the average time is takes to graduate with a journalism degree is four years.

The top 5 ranked journalism schools in the US for the school year of 2022 are: 1. Washington and Lee University. 2. Northwestern University. 3. Georgetown University. 4. Columbia University in the City of New York. 5. University of Wisconsin - Madison.

Writing for experts or for ordinary citizens

Walter Lippmann in 1914

In the 1920s in the United States, as newspapers dropped their blatant partisanship in search of new subscribers, political analyst Walter Lippmann and philosopher John Dewey debated the role of journalism in a democracy. Their differing philosophies still characterize an ongoing debate about the role of journalism in society. Lippmann's views prevailed for decades, helping to bolster the Progressives' confidence in decision-making by experts, with the general public standing by. Lippmann argued that high-powered journalism was wasted on ordinary citizens, but was of genuine value to an elite class of administrators and experts. Dewey, on the other hand, believed not only that the public was capable of understanding the issues created or responded to by the elite, but also that it was in the public forum that decisions should be made after discussion and debate. When issues were thoroughly vetted, then the best ideas would bubble to the surface. The danger of demagoguery and false news did not trouble Dewey. His faith in popular democracy has been implemented in various degrees, and is now known as "community journalism". The 1920s debate has been endlessly repeated across the globe, as journalists wrestle with their roles.

Radio

Radio broadcasting increased in popularity starting in the 1920s, becoming widespread in the 1930s. While most radio programming was oriented toward music, sports, and entertainment, radio also broadcast speeches and occasional news programming. Radio reached the peak of its importance during World War II, as radio and newsreels were major sources of up-to-date information on the ongoing war. In the Soviet Union, radio would be heavily utilized by the state to broadcast political speeches by leadership. These broadcasts would very rarely have any additional editorial content or analysis, setting them apart from modern news reporting. The radio would however soon be eclipsed by broadcast television starting in the 1950s.

Television

Mal:Main Starting in the 1940s, United States broadcast television channels would air 10-to-15-minute segments of news programming one or two times per evening. The era of live-TV news coverage would begin in the 1960s with the assassination of John F. Kennedy, broadcast and reported to live on a variety of nationally syndicated television channels. During the 60s and 70s, television channels would begin adding regular morning or midday news shows. Starting in 1980 with the establishment of CNN, news channels began providing 24-hour news coverage, a format which persists through today.

Digital age

Journalists at a press conference

The role and status of journalism, as well as mass media, has undergone changes over the last two decades, together with the advancement of digital technology and publication of news on the Internet. This has created a shift in the consumption of print media channels, as people increasingly consume news through e-readers, smartphones, and other electronic devices. News organizations are challenged to fully monetize their digital wing, as well as improvise on the context in which they publish in print. Newspapers have seen print revenues sink at a faster pace than the rate of growth for digital revenues.

Notably, in the American media landscape, newsrooms have reduced their staff and coverage as traditional media channels, such as television, grappling with declining audiences. For example, between 2007 and 2012, CNN edited its story packages into nearly half of their original time length. The compactness in coverage has been linked to broad audience attrition. According to the Pew Research Center, the circulation for U.S. newspapers has fallen sharply in the 21st century. Digital-first, non-profit newsrooms have grown in response to the need for high-quality information that the private sector has been struggling to provide.

The digital era also introduced journalism whose development is done by ordinary citizens, with the rise of citizen journalism being possible through the Internet. Using video camera-equipped smartphones, active citizens are now enabled to record footage of news events and upload them onto channels like YouTube (which is often discovered and used by mainstream news media outlets). News from a variety of online sources, like blogs and other social media, results in a wider choice of official and unofficial sources, rather than only traditional media organizations.

Journalist interviewing a cosplayer

Demographics in 2016

A worldwide sample of 27,500 journalists in 67 countries in 2012–2016 produced the following profile:

• 57 percent male;
• Mean age of 38
• Mean years of experience:13
• College degree: 56 percent; graduate degree: 29 percent
• 61 percent specialized in journalism/communications at college
• 62 percent identified as generalists and 23 percent as hard-news beat journalists
• 47 percent were members of a professional association
• 80 percent worked full-time
• 50 percent worked in print, 23 percent in television, 17 percent in radio, and 16 percent online.

Ethics and standards

News photographers and reporters waiting behind a police line in New York City, in May 1994

While various existing codes have some differences, most share common elements including the principles of – truthfulness, accuracy, objectivity, impartiality, fairness and public accountability – as these apply to the acquisition of newsworthy information and its subsequent dissemination to the public.

Bill Kovach and Tom Rosenstiel propose several guidelines for journalists in their book The Elements of Journalism. Their view is that journalism's first loyalty is to the citizenry and that journalists are thus obliged to tell the truth and must serve as an independent monitor of powerful individuals and institutions within society. In this view, the essence of journalism is to provide citizens with reliable information through the discipline of verification.

Some journalistic Codes of Ethics, notably the European ones, also include a concern with discriminatory references in news based on race, religion, sexual orientation, and physical or mental disabilities. The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe approved in 1993 Resolution 1003 on the Ethics of Journalism which recommends journalists to respect the presumption of innocence, in particular in cases that are still sub judice.

In the UK, all newspapers are bound by the Code of Practice of the Independent Press Standards Organisation. This includes points like respecting people's privacy and ensuring accuracy. However, the Media Standards Trust has criticized the PCC, claiming it needs to be radically changed to secure the public trust of newspapers.

This is in stark contrast to the media climate prior to the 20th century, where the media market was dominated by smaller newspapers and pamphleteers who usually had an overt and often radical agenda, with no presumption of balance or objectivity.

Mal:LangMal:'s editor-in-chief Dmitry Muratov was awarded the 2021 Nobel Peace Prize for his "efforts to safeguard freedom of expression" in Russia.

Because of the pressure on journalists to report news promptly and before their competitors, factual errors occur more frequently than in writing produced and edited under less time pressure. Thus a typical issue of a major daily newspaper may contain several corrections of articles published the previous day. Perhaps the most famous journalistic mistake caused by time pressure was the Dewey Defeats Truman edition of the Chicago Daily Tribune, based on early election returns that failed to anticipate the actual result of the 1948 US presidential election.

Codes of ethics

There are over 242 codes of ethics in journalism that vary across various regions of the world. The codes of ethics are created through an interaction of different groups of people such as the public and journalists themselves. Most of the codes of ethics serve as a representation of the economic and political beliefs of the society where the code was written. Despite the fact that there are a variety of codes of ethics, some of the core elements present in all codes are: remaining objective, providing the truth, and being honest.

Journalism does not have a universal code of conduct; individuals are not legally obliged to follow a certain set of rules like a doctor or a lawyer does. There have been discussions for creating a universal code of conduct in journalism. One suggestion centers on having three claims for credibility, justifiable consequence, and the claim of humanity. Within the claim of credibility, journalists are expected to provide the public with reliable and trustworthy information, and allowing the public to question the nature of the information and its acquisition. The second claim of justifiable consequences centers on weighing the benefits and detriments of a potentially harmful story and acting accordingly. An example of justifiable consequence is exposing a professional with dubious practices; on the other hand, acting within justifiable consequence means writing compassionately about a family in mourning. The third claim is the claim of humanity which states that journalists are writing for a global population and therefore must serve everyone globally in their work, avoiding smaller loyalties to country, city, etc.

Legal status

Turkish journalists protesting imprisonment of their colleagues on Human Rights Day, 10 December 2016

Number of journalists reported killed between 2002 and 2013

Governments have widely varying policies and practices towards journalists, which control what they can research and write, and what press organizations can publish. Some governments guarantee the freedom of the press; while other nations severely restrict what journalists can research or publish.

Journalists in many nations have some privileges that members of the general public do not, including better access to public events, crime scenes and press conferences, and to extended interviews with public officials, celebrities and others in the public eye.

Journalists who elect to cover conflicts, whether wars between nations or insurgencies within nations, often give up any expectation of protection by government, if not giving up their rights to protection from the government. Journalists who are captured or detained during a conflict are expected to be treated as civilians and to be released to their national government. Many governments around the world _target journalists for intimidation, harassment, and violence because of the nature of their work.

Right to protect confidentiality of sources

Journalists' interaction with sources sometimes involves confidentiality, an extension of freedom of the press giving journalists a legal protection to keep the identity of a confidential informant private even when demanded by police or prosecutors; withholding their sources can land journalists in contempt of court, or in jail.

In the United States, there is no right to protect sources in a federal court. However, federal courts will refuse to force journalists to reveal their sources, unless the information the court seeks is highly relevant to the case and there is no other way to get it. State courts provide varying degrees of such protection. Journalists who refuse to testify even when ordered to can be found in contempt of court and fined or jailed. On the journalistic side of keeping sources confidential, there is also a risk to the journalist's credibility because there can be no actual confirmation of whether the information is valid. As such it is highly discouraged for journalists to have confidential sources

See also

• Creative nonfiction
• Glossary of journalism
• Hallin's spheres
• List of journalism awards
• Lists of journalists
• List of journalists killed in India
• Attacks on RTI activists in India
• Journalistic objectivity

Reviews

• American Journalism Review
• Columbia Journalism Review
• Health News Review
• Ryerson Review of Journalism

Academic journals

• Digital Journalism
• Journalism
• Journalism Practice
• Journalism Studies

Further reading

• Hanitzsch, Thomas et al. eds. Worlds of Journalism: Journalistic Cultures around the Globe (2019) online review
• Rodgers, Ronald R. 2018. The Struggle for the Soul of Journalism : The Pulpit Versus the Press 1833-1923. Columbia Missouri: University of Missouri Press.
• Kaltenbrunner, Andy and Matthias Karmasin and Daniela Kraus, eds. "The Journalism Report V: Innovation and Transition", Facultas, 2017
• Marthoz, J.-P. (2016). Giving up on the graft and the grind: Why journalists are failing to cover difficult stories. Index on Censorship, 45(2), 22–27.
• Sterling, Christopher H. (ed.), Encyclopedia of journalism, *(6 vol, SAGE, 2009).
• de Beer Arnold S. and John C. Merrill, eds. Global Journalism: Topical Issues and Media Systems (5th ed. 2008)
• Shoemaker, Pamela J. and Akiba A. Cohen, eds. News Around the World: Content, Practitioners, and the Public (2nd ed. 2005)

External links

• Journalist's Toolbox by the Society of Professional Journalists