Table 1.
Risk of bias of studies investigating non-medical interventions for chronic low back pain
| Reference | Randomization adequate? | Allocation concealed? | Groups similar at baseline? | Patient blinded? | Care provider blinded? | Outcome assessor blinded? | Co-interventions avoided or similar? | Compliance acceptable? | Drop-out rate described and acceptable? | Timing outcome assessment similar? | Intention-to-treat analysis? | Total score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Exercise | ||||||||||||
| Alexandre et al. [14] | ? | + | + | − | − | ? | ? | ? | + | + | + | 5 |
| Bendix et al. [15] | + | − | + | − | − | + | + | + | + | + | − | 7 |
| Chatzitheodorou et al. [16]a | + | ? | + | − | − | ? | ? | ? | ? | + | ? | 3 |
| Chown et al. [47] | + | ? | + | − | − | − | ? | − | − | + | − | 3 |
| Critchley et al. [17]a | + | + | + | − | − | − | ? | ? | − | + | + | 5 |
| Deyo et al. [18] | + | + | + | − | − | + | + | + | + | + | − | 8 |
| Donzelli et al. [19]a | ? | ? | ? | + | − | + | ? | − | ? | + | ? | 3 |
| Elnaggar et al. [20] | + | + | + | − | − | + | − | − | − | + | + | 6 |
| Ferreira et al. [21]a | + | + | + | − | − | − | + | + | + | + | + | 8 |
| Frost et al. [106] (1998) | + | + | + | − | − | + | − | + | + | + | + | 8 |
| Galantino et al. [23] | + | ? | ? | − | ? | − | ? | ? | − | + | − | 2 |
| Gladwell et al. [24]a | ? | ? | − | − | − | + | ? | + | − | + | − | 3 |
| Goldby et al. [25]a | + | ? | + | − | − | + | ? | − | + | + | ? | 4 |
| Gudavalli et al. [26]a | + | + | + | − | − | + | ? | ? | − | + | + | 6 |
| Gur et al. [27] | ? | ? | + | − | − | − | ? | ? | + | + | + | 4 |
| Harts et al. [48] | + | + | + | − | − | − | ? | + | − | + | + | 6 |
| Hildebrandt et al. [28] | + | + | + | − | − | − | + | − | − | + | + | 6 |
| Johannsen et al. [29] | − | ? | ? | − | − | − | − | − | − | + | − | 1 |
| Kankaanpaa et al. [30] | + | + | + | − | − | − | ? | + | + | + | − | 6 |
| Koldas et al. [49] | + | ? | + | − | − | − | ? | ? | + | + | ? | 3 |
| Lewis et al. [31]a | + | ? | − | − | − | + | + | + | + | + | + | 7 |
| Machado et al. [32]a | + | ? | + | − | − | + | ? | − | − | + | + | 5 |
| Mannion et al. [33] | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | 11 |
| Marshall and Murphy [34]a | ? | ? | + | − | − | ? | ? | ? | + | + | − | 3 |
| Niemisto et al. [35, 103] | + | + | + | − | − | − | + | + | + | + | + | 8 |
| Risch et al. [36] | − | − | + | − | − | − | − | − | + | + | + | 4 |
| Rittweger et al. [37] | + | + | + | − | − | − | ? | ? | + | + | − | 5 |
| Roche et al. [38]a | + | ? | + | ? | − | ? | ? | ? | + | + | ? | 4 |
| Sherman et al. [39]a | + | + | + | − | − | + | + | + | + | + | + | 8 |
| Sjögren et al. [40]a | ? | ? | ? | ? | − | ? | + | + | + | + | ? | 4 |
| Smeets et al. [41, 104]a | + | + | + | − | − | + | + | + | + | + | + | 9 |
| Tekur et al. [50] | + | + | + | − | − | − | ? | ? | + | ? | ? | 4 |
| Tritilanunt and Wajanavisit [42] | + | ? | + | − | − | − | ? | ? | + | + | − | 4 |
| Turner et al. [43] | + | + | + | − | − | − | − | − | − | + | − | 4 |
| Williams et al. [44]a | + | ? | + | − | − | ? | + | ? | − | + | ? | 4 |
| Yelland et al. [45] | + | + | + | − | − | − | + | + | + | + | + | 8 |
| Yozbatiran et al. [46] | ? | ? | + | − | − | − | ? | + | + | + | + | 5 |
| Back schools | ||||||||||||
| Donzelli et al. [19]a, c | ? | ? | ? | + | − | + | ? | − | ? | + | ? | 3 |
| Hurri [51] | ? | − | + | − | − | − | − | − | + | + | + | 4 |
| Keijsers et al. [52] | ? | ? | − | − | − | − | − | − | + | − | ? | 1 |
| Klaber Moffet et al. [53] | + | + | + | − | − | + | − | − | + | + | + | 7 |
| Ribeiro et al. [55] | + | + | + | − | − | − | − | + | + | + | − | 6 |
| Tavafian et al. [54]a | ? | − | + | − | − | ? | + | ? | + | + | + | 5 |
| TENS | ||||||||||||
| Deyo et al. [18]c | + | + | + | − | − | + | + | + | + | + | − | 8 |
| Ghoname et al. [56]b | + | ? | ? | + | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | + | ? | 3 |
| Grant et al. [57]b | + | ? | − | − | − | − | + | ? | + | + | ? | 4 |
| Jarzem et al. [58]a | + | ? | ? | + | ? | ? | ? | + | ? | + | ? | 4 |
| Jarzem et al. [58]a | + | ? | ? | + | ? | + | ? | + | + | + | ? | 6 |
| Topuz et al. [61] | + | + | + | + | ? | + | + | + | − | + | − | 8 |
| Yokoyama et al. [60]b | ? | ? | + | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | + | + | ? | 3 |
| Low-level laser | ||||||||||||
| Djavid et al. [62] | + | + | + | + | + | + | ? | + | + | + | + | 10 |
| Gur et al. [27]c | ? | ? | + | − | − | − | ? | ? | + | + | + | 4 |
| Klein and Eek [63] | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | 11 |
| Soriano and Rios [64] | ? | − | + | + | + | − | + | + | − | + | − | 6 |
| Patient education | ||||||||||||
| Goldby et al. [25]c | + | ? | + | − | − | + | ? | − | + | + | ? | 5 |
| Hurri [51]c | − | − | + | − | − | − | − | − | + | + | + | 4 |
| Moseley et al. [89] | ? | ? | + | + | + | ? | ? | ? | − | + | + | 5 |
| Sherman et al. [39]c | + | + | + | − | − | + | + | + | + | + | + | 9 |
| Massage | ||||||||||||
| Field et al. [65]a | ? | ? | ? | − | − | − | ? | ? | ? | + | ? | 1 |
| Franke et al. [66] | + | − | − | − | − | − | + | + | + | + | − | 5 |
| Hernandez-Reif et al. [67] | + | ? | + | − | ? | ? | ? | + | − | + | ? | 4 |
| Behavioural treatment | ||||||||||||
| Altmaier et al. [68] | − | − | + | − | − | − | − | + | + | − | − | 3 |
| Buhrman et al. [69]a | ? | ? | + | − | − | − | + | ? | + | + | − | 4 |
| Bush et al. [70] | ? | ? | + | + | − | + | ? | ? | + | + | − | 5 |
| Donaldson et al. [71] | ? | ? | − | − | − | − | ? | + | + | + | ? | 3 |
| Haas et al. [72]a | ? | ? | + | − | − | − | − | ? | + | + | + | 4 |
| Johnson et al. [73]a | + | − | + | − | − | − | ? | − | + | + | + | 5 |
| Kole-Snijders [74] | + | + | + | + | − | + | + | − | − | + | + | 8 |
| Leeuw et al. [86] | + | + | + | − | − | − | ? | − | + | + | + | 6 |
| Magnusson et al. [87] | ? | ? | + | − | − | − | ? | ? | ? | + | − | 2 |
| McCauley et al. [75] | ? | ? | + | − | − | − | ? | − | ? | + | − | 2 |
| Newton-John et al. [76] | − | − | + | − | − | − | + | + | − | + | − | 4 |
| Nicholas et al. [77] | ? | ? | − | ? | − | − | + | + | − | + | − | 3 |
| Nicholas et al. [78] | ? | ? | − | ? | − | − | + | ? | + | + | − | 3 |
| Nouwen [79] | − | − | + | − | − | − | + | + | + | + | + | 6 |
| Van der Roer et al. [88] | + | + | + | − | − | − | ? | ? | + | + | + | 6 |
| Rose et al. 4780] | − | − | + | − | − | − | − | − | − | + | − | 2 |
| Stuckey et al. [82] | ? | ? | − | + | − | − | ? | ? | − | + | − | 2 |
| Schweikert et al. [81]a | + | + | + | − | − | − | ? | ? | - | + | ? | 4 |
| Smeets et al. [41]a, c | + | + | + | − | − | − | + | + | + | + | + | 8 |
| Turner [83] | − | − | + | + | − | − | − | − | − | ? | − | 2 |
| Turner and Clancy [84] | − | − | + | + | − | + | − | − | + | + | - | 5 |
| Turner et al. [43]c | + | + | + | − | − | − | − | − | − | + | − | 4 |
| Turner and Jensen [85] | − | − | + | + | − | + | − | − | − | + | − | 4 |
| Traction | ||||||||||||
| Borman et al. [90] | ? | ? | + | − | ? | − | + | − | + | + | − | 4 |
| Multidisciplinary rehabilitation | ||||||||||||
| Alaranta et al. [91] | ? | − | + | − | − | − | + | + | + | + | − | 5 |
| Bendix et al. [15]c | + | − | + | − | − | + | + | + | + | + | − | 7 |
| Bendix et al. [92] | + | − | + | − | − | − | − | − | + | + | + | 5 |
| Harkapaa et al. [96] | ? | − | + | − | − | − | − | + | + | + | − | 4 |
| Jäckel et al. [93] | ? | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | + | − | 1 |
| Kaapa et al. [94] | + | + | + | − | − | − | ? | ? | + | + | + | 6 |
| Vollenbroek-Hutten et al. [95] | + | + | + | - | - | - | + | ? | + | + | + | 7 |
+ Fulfils criteria, − did not fulfil criteria, ? unclear whether this item fulfils criteria
aNew studies (not included in Cochrane reviews)
bNot included in the Cochrane review because of control group
cDuplicate; also included in other intervention section