Table 9.
Association between naturally lignan-rich foods and health promotion.
| Author, Year | Methods | Results |
|---|---|---|
| Breast Cancer | ||
| Lowcock, E.C. et al. (2013) [111] | Case-control study (2999 cases and 3370 controls) FFQ |
Consumption of flaxseed and flax bread was associated with a significant reduction in breast cancer risk (OR 0.82, 95% CI 0.69–0.97; and OR 0.77, 95% CI 0.67–0.89), respectively. |
| McCann et al. (2012) [113] | Case-control study (638 cases and 611 controls) BioRepository at Roswell Park Cancer Institute FFQ |
Lignan intakes were inversely associated with risk of ER (−) breast cancer among premenopausal women (OR 0.16, 95% CI 0.03–0.44) and particularly triple negative tumors (OR 0.16, 95% CI 0.04–0.62). |
| Zaineddin AK et al. (2012) [114] | Case-control study (2884 cases and 5509 controls) FFQ |
High and low consumption of soybeans, as well as of sunflower and pumpkin seeds were associated with significantly reduced breast cancer risk compared to no consumption (OR 0.83, 95% CI 0.70–0.97; and OR 0.66, 95% CI 0.77–0.97, respectively). |
| Buck K et al. (2011) [112] | 1140 postmenopausal patients (age 50 to 74 years) FFQ Serum Enterolactone |
Serum enterolactone was associated with a significantly reduced risk of death only for estrogen receptor-negative tumors (HR 0.27; 95% CI 0.08 to 0.87) |
| Buck K et al. (2010) [116] | Meta-analyses Medline search to identify epidemiologic studies published between 1997 and August 2009 | Lignan exposure was not associated with overall breast cancer risk (RE 0.92; 95% CI 0.81, 1.02). |
| McCann, S.E et al. (2010) [107] | Breast cancer patients; National Death Index Food frequency questionnaire (FFQ), DietSys (3.7) |
Lignan intake among post-menopausal women with breast cancer significantly reduced risk of mortality from breast cancer (HR 0.29, 95% CI, 0.11–0.76), as well as significantly reducing risk of all-cause mortality (HR 0.49, 95% CI 0.26–0.91). |
| Velentzis LS et al. (2009) [115] | Meta-analy sesMedline, BIOSIS and EMBASE databases publications up to 30 September 2008 | Overall, there was little association between high plant lignan intake and breast cancer risk (11 studies, OR 0.93, 95% CI 0.83–1.03). |
| Cotterchio, M et al. (2008) [109] | Ontario Cancer Registry; Controls: Age-stratified random sample of women FFQ |
Total phytoestrogen intake in pre-menopausal women was associated with a significant reduction in breast cancer risk among overweight women (OR 0.51, 95% CI 0.30, 0.87). |
| Suzuki, R. et al. (2008) [108] | Swedish Mammography Cohort FFQ and Swedish National Food database Serum Enterolactone: Fluoroimmunoassay Receptor status of tumors: Immunohistochemical |
A significant 17% risk reduction for breast cancer overall in high lignan intake was observed, but no heterogeneity across Estrogen Receptor/Progesterone Receptor subtypes. |
| Trock BJ et al. (2006) [110] | Meta-analysis of 18 epidemiologic studies published from 1978 through 2004 |
High soy intake was discreetly associated with reduction of breast cancer risk (OR 0.86, 95% CI: 0.75 to 0.99); association was not statistically significant among women in Asian countries (OR 0.89, 95% CI 0.71 to 1.12). |
| Gastroesophageal Cancer | ||
| Lin Y et al. (2012) [117] | Case-control study (1995–1997); 806 controls, 181 cases of esophageal adenocarcinoma, 255 cases of gastroesophageal junctional adenocarcinoma, and 158 cases of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Interviews and questionnaires; FFQ |
No clear associations were found between risk of esophageal carcinoma and lignan intake. |
| Lin Y et al. (2012) [118] | Cohort study in Sweden, 81,670 (followed up 1998 to 2009). Cancer cases: Swedish Cancer Register FFQ |
There was no statistically significant association between dietary intake of lignans and any of the studied adenocarcinomas. |
| Colon Cancer | ||
| Zamora-Ros, R. et al. (2015) [119] | 409 CRC cases in Barcelona (Spain). FFQ; Phenol-Explorer database. |
No associations were also observed with either total lignans or any flavonoid subclass intake. |
| Prostate Cancer | ||
| Wallström P et al. (2018) [120] | Case-control study (1010 cases and 1817 controls) National registers and hospital records FFQ Plasma Enterolactone: Fluoroimmunoassay |
There were no significant associations between plasma enterolactone and incidence of prostate cancer (OR 0.99, 95% CI 0.77–1.280) |
| Eriksen AK et al. (2017) [121] | 1390 men diagnosed with prostate cancer from the Danish Diet, Cancer and Health cohort Plasma Enterolactone: Fluoroimmunoassay |
No associations between plasma enterolactone concentrations and prostate cancer aggressiveness. |
| Hedelin M et al. (2006) [123] | Swedish case-control study (1499 prostate cancer cases and 1130 controls) FFQ |
No association was found between dietary intake of total or individual lignans or isoflavonoids and risk of prostate cancer. |
| Bylund A. et al. (2003) [122] | 10 men with prostate cancer were randomized to a daily supplement of rye bran bread and 8 men of wheat bread Blood and urine samples. Ultrasound-guided core biopsies of the prostate. |
In the rye group, there was a significant increase in plasma enterolactone. However, only small changes were observed in plasma concentrations of prostate specific antigen (PSA). |
| Cardiovascular disease | ||
| Witkowska AM et al. (2018) [126] | 2599 postmenopausal women, participants of the Multi-center National Population Health Examination Surveys. 24-h Dietary recall and food databases. |
In postmenopausal women, total and individual lignan intakes (secoisolariciresinol, pinoresinol, matairesinol) were not associated with the prevalence of CVD and its risk factors. |
| Pellegrini N et al. (2010) [127] | Cross-sectional study in 151 men and 91 post-menopausal women. Anthropometric characteristics. Soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (sICAM-1), CRP, insulin, glucose, total cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol and triacylglycerols. Three-day weighed food record |
No relationship between intake of pinoresinol, lariciresinol or total lignans and sICAM-1 values was observed. |
| Jacobs DR. et al. (2000) [128] | 11,040 postmenopausal women enrolled in the Iowa Women’s Health Study Followed from baseline 1986−997. | Women who consumed on average 1.9 g refined grain fiber/2000 kcal and 4.7 g whole grain fiber/2000 kcal had a 17% lower mortality rate (RR = 0.83, 95% CI = 0.73–0.94) than women who consumed predominantly refined grain fiber. |
| Vanharanta M. et al. (2003) [129] | A prospective study of Finnish men. 1889 men aged 42 to 60 years. Followed up 12.2 years. | Multivariate analyses showed significant associations between elevated serum enterolactone concentration and reduced risk of CVD-related mortality. |
| Other diseases | ||
| Franco OH. et al. (2005) [130] | Community-based survey among 394 postmenopausal women. FFQ; Cognitive function:Mini-Mental Examination |
Increasing dietary lignans intake was associated with better performance on the MMSE (OR 1.49, 95% CI 0.94–2.38). Results were most pronounced in women who were 20–30 years. |
| Eichholzer M. et al. (2014) [131] | 2028 participants of NHANES 2005-2008 and 2628 participants of NHANES 1999-2004 (aged ≥18 years) Inflammatory marker: CRP |
Statistically significant inverse associations of urinary lignan, enterodiol, and enterolactone concentrations with circulating CRP counts were observed in the multivariate-adjusted models. |
FFQ: Food Frequency Questionnaire; CI: Confidence Interval; HR: Hazard Ratio; OR: Odds Ratio; CVD: Cardiovascular Disease; MMSE: Cognitive function Mini-Mental Examination; CRP: C-Reactive Protein.