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Review
. 2021 Jan 19;11(1):252.
doi: 10.3390/nano11010252.

Electrochemical Sensors Based on Conducting Polymers for the Aqueous Detection of Biologically Relevant Molecules

Álvaro Terán-Alcocer  1 , Francisco Bravo-Plascencia  1 , Carlos Cevallos-Morillo  2 , Alex Palma-Cando  1
Affiliations
Review

Electrochemical Sensors Based on Conducting Polymers for the Aqueous Detection of Biologically Relevant Molecules

Álvaro Terán-Alcocer et al. Nanomaterials (Basel). .

Abstract

Electrochemical sensors appear as low-cost, rapid, easy to use, and in situ devices for determination of diverse analytes in a liquid solution. In that context, conducting polymers are much-explored sensor building materials because of their semiconductivity, structural versatility, multiple synthetic pathways, and stability in environmental conditions. In this state-of-the-art review, synthetic processes, morphological characterization, and nanostructure formation are analyzed for relevant literature about electrochemical sensors based on conducting polymers for the determination of molecules that (i) have a fundamental role in the human body function regulation, and (ii) are considered as water emergent pollutants. Special focus is put on the different types of micro- and nanostructures generated for the polymer itself or the combination with different materials in a composite, and how the rough morphology of the conducting polymers based electrochemical sensors affect their limit of detection. Polypyrroles, polyanilines, and polythiophenes appear as the most recurrent conducting polymers for the construction of electrochemical sensors. These conducting polymers are usually built starting from bifunctional precursor monomers resulting in linear and branched polymer structures; however, opportunities for sensitivity enhancement in electrochemical sensors have been recently reported by using conjugated microporous polymers synthesized from multifunctional monomers.

Keywords: ascorbic acid; conducting polymers; electrochemical sensors; emergent pollutants; glucose; hydrogen peroxide; neurotransmitters; nitroaromatic compounds; pharmaceuticals; phenolic compounds.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Schematic representation of the molecularly imprinted polymers fabrication process of composite MIPs/ZNTs/FTO glass and its interaction with dopamine. Reproduced with permission from [90]. Copyright 2017 Elsevier B.V.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Schematic representation of the fabrication process of composite polypyrrole (PPy)-Ag. Reproduced with permission from [93]. Copyright 2020 Elsevier B.V.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Schematic representation of different synthetic pathways for manufacturing the composite polyaniline-p-toluene sulphonic acids PANI-pTSA. Reproduced with permission from [98]. Copyright 2019 Elsevier B.V.
Figure 4
Figure 4
SEM images of (a) PANI, (b) poly-β-CD, and (c) poly-β-CD (f-MWCNTs)/PANI composite. Reproduced with permission from [99]. Copyright 2019 Elsevier B.V.
Figure 5
Figure 5
Schematic representation of the fabrication process of PEDOT-Modified Laser Scribed Graphene (PEDOT-LSG) electrodes, and micrographs showing the morphology of LSG and PEDOT/LSG film. Modified with permission from [112]. Copyright 2018 Elsevier B.V.
Figure 6
Figure 6
Schematic representation of the fabrication process of PEDOT/Au composites. Reproduced with permission from [114]. Copyright 2017 Elsevier B.V.
Figure 7
Figure 7
Schematic representation of the fabrication process of PT/Au/CNT electrodes. Reproduced with permission from [120]. Copyright 2019 Elsevier B.V.
Figure 8
Figure 8
Schematic representation of the fabrication process of pHQ/AuNPs over Ni Foam. Reproduced with permission from [125]. Copyright 2017 Elsevier B.V.
Figure 9
Figure 9
Schematic representation of the fabrication process of Au-PDNs (polydopamine nanospheres) electrodes. Reproduced with permission from [128]. Copyright 2019 Elsevier B.V.
Figure 10
Figure 10
SEM analysis of EB-PPy-BSA hybrid structure (a) micrograph, and (b) EDS spectrum. Modified with permission from [129]. Copyright 2018 Elsevier B.V.
Figure 11
Figure 11
SEM image of p(P3CA)/PGE surface in a magnification of (a) 10,000× and (b) 50,000×. Modified with permission from [137]. Copyright 2015 Elsevier B.V.
Figure 12
Figure 12
Schematic representation of the casting process of rGO−PEDOT/PSS-nafion composite onto gold mylar substrates. Reproduced with permission from [141]. Copyright 2019 American Chemical Society.
Figure 13
Figure 13
Schematic representation of the fabrication process of PEDOT/GO/ITO electrodes. Modified with permission from [148]. Copyright 2019 Elsevier B.V.
Figure 14
Figure 14
Micrograph of poly (6-thioguanine) film (P6-TG) deposited over glassy carbon electrode. Reproduced with permission from [152]. Copyright 2015 Elsevier B.V.
Figure 15
Figure 15
Scheme of EPI-4 structure used into a CPE to determinate AA. Yellow points represent gold nanoparticles. Reproduced with permission from [155]. Copyright 2017 Elsevier.
Figure 16
Figure 16
Schematic illustration for the preparation of duplex molecularly imprinted polymer/carbon paste electrodes (DMIP/CPE). Modified with permission from [207]. Copyright 2016 Elsevier.
Figure 17
Figure 17
Micrograph of molecularly imprinted polymers/golf nanoparticles/glassy carbon electrodes (MIP/AuNPs/GCE) microstructure (a) before and (b) after metronidazole extraction. Modified with permission from [208]. Copyright 2015 Elsevier.
Figure 18
Figure 18
FESEM images of (a) bare standard GCE, (b) nanoporous GCE, (c) PCC/nanoporous GCE and (d) CS-MWCNTs+TiO2NPs/PCC/nanoporous GCE. Reproduced with permission from [214]. Copyright 2018 Electrochemical Society, Inc.
Figure 19
Figure 19
FE-SEM micrographs of (a) CPE, (b) PEB/CPE and (c) SDS/PEB/CPE. Reproduced with permission from [218]. Copyright 2019 Wiley-Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Figure 20
Figure 20
(a) EIS response of the MIP sensor towards 17-β-estradiol in the concentration of 1 aM to 10 μM. (b) Calibration curve of the Rct values versus the logarithm concentration of 17-β-estradiol. Modified with permission from [223]. Copyright 2018 Elsevier.
Figure 21
Figure 21
AFM images of the (a) unmodified glassy carbon electrode and (b) poly Nile blue modified glassy carbon electrode. Modified with permission from [231]. Copyright 2016 Elsevier.
Figure 22
Figure 22
SEM images of (a) Cu2+-PANI, (b) Cu2+-Nano-ZSM-5, and (c) Cu2+-PANI-Nano-ZSM-5 nanocomposite. Reproduced with permission from [237]. Copyright 2015 Elsevier.
Figure 23
Figure 23
CV responses of the FTO/PANI-gC3N4/AgNP electrode at a scan rate of 50 mV in the presence of different hydrazine concentrations. Modified with permission from [254]. Copyright 2018 Elsevier.
Figure 24
Figure 24
(a) Chronoamperogram for the sequential addition of catechol at Cu-PPy/GCE in 0.1 M PBS (pH = 7.0) at 0.3 V vs. SCE. (b) Schematic representation of the formation of a five-membered ring with Cu(II) and catechol and further oxidation of catechol at Cu-PPy/GCE. Modified with permission from [287]. Copyright 2017 Electrochemical Society.
Figure 25
Figure 25
Differential pulse voltammetry of poly (35DT)/Au electrode without 4-nitrophenol (solid square line), a bare gold electrode with 50 mM of 4-nitrophenol (solid circle line), and poly (35DT)/Au electrode with 50 μM of 4-nitrophenol (solid line). Modified with permission from [298]. Copyright 2019 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbbH and Co.
Figure 26
Figure 26
FESEM images of polypyrrole/sodium dodecyl sulphate film, (a) before and (b) after electrochemical treatment. Modified with permission from [299]. Copyright 2015 Elsevier.
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