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Review
. 2022 Oct 28;3(1):1-27.
doi: 10.1021/acsnanoscienceau.2c00039. eCollection 2023 Feb 15.

Significance of an Electrochemical Sensor and Nanocomposites: Toward the Electrocatalytic Detection of Neurotransmitters and Their Importance within the Physiological System

Harjot Kaur  1 , Samarjeet Singh Siwal  1 , Reena V Saini  2 , Nirankar Singh  1 , Vijay Kumar Thakur  3   4   5
Affiliations
Review

Significance of an Electrochemical Sensor and Nanocomposites: Toward the Electrocatalytic Detection of Neurotransmitters and Their Importance within the Physiological System

Harjot Kaur et al. ACS Nanosci Au. .

Abstract

A prominent neurotransmitter (NT), dopamine (DA), is a chemical messenger that transmits signals between one neuron to the next to pass on a signal to and from the central nervous system (CNS). The imbalanced concentration of DA may cause numerous neurological sicknesses and syndromes, for example, Parkinson's disease (PD) and schizophrenia. There are many types of NTs in the brain, including epinephrine, norepinephrine (NE), serotonin, and glutamate. Electrochemical sensors have offered a creative direction to biomedical analysis and testing. Researches are in progress to improve the performance of sensors and develop new protocols for sensor design. This review article focuses on the area of sensor growth to discover the applicability of polymers and metallic particles and composite materials as tools in electrochemical sensor surface incorporation. Electrochemical sensors have attracted the attention of researchers as they possess high sensitivity, quick reaction rate, good controllability, and instantaneous detection. Efficient complex materials provide considerable benefits for biological detection as they have exclusive chemical and physical properties. Due to distinctive electrocatalytic characteristics, metallic nanoparticles add fascinating traits to materials that depend on the material's morphology and size. Herein, we have collected much information on NTs and their importance within the physiological system. Furthermore, the electrochemical sensors and corresponding techniques (such as voltammetric, amperometry, impedance, and chronoamperometry) and the different types of electrodes' roles in the analysis of NTs are discussed. Furthermore, other methods for detecting NTs include optical and microdialysis methods. Finally, we show the advantages and disadvantages of different techniques and conclude remarks with future perspectives.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no competing financial interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Schematic diagram showcasing top parts of the human nervous system, and the red color represents neurotransmitters released by each part. Reprinted with permission under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License from ref (30). Copyright 2020 Nature.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Symptoms of iodine deficiency in the human body.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Systematic demonstration of the matured human brain and its regions where different neurotransmitters affect its functioning. Reprinted with permission under a PMC PubMed Central from ref (57). Copyright 2011.
Figure 4
Figure 4
Physical investigation of the combined ZnO NWA/GF. (a) Graphic representation of the ZnO NWA/GF probe and UA, DA, and AA detection. (b–e) SEM pictures of the ZnO NWAs at the 3D GF on special intensifications. Inset: Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) of the ZnO NWAs. (f) SEM pictures of the size of the ZnO NWAs, ∼2 μm. Inset: Diameter of the ZnO NWAs, ∼40 nm. Electrochemical recognition of UA, DA, and AA. (g–i) CV arcs of the ZnO NWA/GF, GF, and bare GCE within 1 mM UA, DA, and AA, correspondingly, at a sweep speed of 50 mV s–1. Reprinted from ref (65). Copyright 2014 American Chemical Society.
Figure 5
Figure 5
Synthesis of epinephrine-enhanced cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). The data were accessed on December 20, 2020 from ref (78) (https://www.britannica.com/science/second-messenger).
Figure 6
Figure 6
(a) Signs and symptoms that arise sideways a spectrum of severity of the serotonin syndrome. Minor symptoms can be unnoticed and considered as just more than flu-like symptoms. (b) At standard serotonergic nerve cells, 5-HT absorptions at a synapse are defined with different methods, such as preparation, regulated leakage from the presynaptic nerve cell, reuptake, and breakdown. VMAT = vesicular monoamine transporter; SERT = serotonin reuptake transporter; 5-HIAA = 5-hydroxyindole acetic acid. Reprinted with permission under an open access Creative Common CC BY license from ref (83). Copyright 2019 MDPI.
Figure 7
Figure 7
Schematic structure of NE-FFNs. (a) Formation of NE-FFNs with a combination of constitutional aspects of NE with the coumarin. (b) NE-FFNs delineate NE uptake from the extracellular area, wrapping within cysts, and exocytosis as they are prepared to support NET and VMAT2. (c) Figurative picture of NE neuron dispersal into the brain. (d) General artificial method toward synthesizing 3-series aminoethyl-7-hydroxy coumarins as possible NE-FFN nominees. (e) Concentration sequence of sample NE-FFNs. (f) Complete cellular fluorescence after loading FFN samples (5 μM) in human embryonic kidney cells stably transfected with human NET (hNET-HEK) cells. Example pictures of FFN270 in the absence of inhibitor (g) and the presence of inhibitor (h). Reprinted with permission under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License from ref (87). Copyright 2018 Nature.
Figure 8
Figure 8
Various biological functions of Glu. Reprinted with permission from ref (88). Copyright 2021 Elsevier Ltd.
Figure 9
Figure 9
(a) Graphic representation of the organic electronic ion pump (OEIP). Chemical description: (b) support of ionic conductivity for Iappl = 200 nA and provided [GABA+]t at different pH of original GABA solution; (c) support of efficacy of GABA transport and [GABA+]s/[H+] proportion upon pH of original GABA solution. Electrical description: (d) ion pump current vs time toward different pH of reference electrolyte; (e) enlargement of the arc in function for original GABA electrolyte; (f) reliance of ionic conductivity on pH for GABA and HCl reference electrolytes as determined from the steady-state current within the arc by utilizing Ohm’s law and understanding the geometry of the track. Reprinted from ref (97). Copyright 2017 American Chemical Society.
Figure 10
Figure 10
Significance of electrochemical sensors.
Figure 11
Figure 11
Essentials and designated ingredients of a distinctive biosensor. Reprinted with permission under an open access Creative Common CC BY license from ref (106). Copyright 2008 MDPI.
Figure 12
Figure 12
Different electrochemical techniques used in biosensors.
Figure 13
Figure 13
Schematic illustration of AgNP-doped CuO porous nanobelts. (a,b) Complete, partial cation-exchange reaction and (c) thermal oxidation. Reprinted with permission from ref (147). Copyright 2021 Elsevier Ltd.
Figure 14
Figure 14
SEM (a,b) and TEM (c,d) images of Ni6MnO8@C. (e) Stability, (f) selectivity, and (g) observed peak currents of Ni6MnO8@C consisting of 2 mM epinephrine. (h) Chronoamperometry scans obtained at different concentrations. Reprinted with permission from ref (149). Copyright 2021 Elsevier Ltd.
Figure 15
Figure 15
Graphic representation of DA detection using different materials on the GCE.
Figure 16
Figure 16
Reaction mechanism for aniline electrochemical polymerization. Reprinted with permission from ref (186). Copyright 2016 Elsevier Ltd.
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