Kristallnacht
Kristallnacht (also called Reichskristallnacht or Reichspogromnacht[1]) was a two-day pogrom against Jews in Nazi Germany, Austria, and the Sudetenland (parts of today's Czechoslovakia). It occurred on November 9-10, 1938. The name "Kristallnacht" means "Night of Broken Glass" in English. Kristallnacht was an important event leading up to the Holocaust. Various Nazi organizations participated, including the Schutzstaffel (SS), Sturmabteilung (SA), and Hitlerjugend (Hitler Youth). Many ordinary Germans joined in, motivated by antisemitism.[2][3]
The consequences to Jews were severe. At least a thousand were killed. Thousands more had their property looted or destroyed. Another 30,000 were deported to concentration camps after the pogrom. Fire departments and police stood by and watched.[4][5]
Name
changeThe word "Kristallnacht" means "Night of Crystal" or "Night of Broken Glass" in English.[2][3]
Not everybody agrees on this name. It has been called a euphemism because it does not mention violence, only property damage (particularly broken windows and crystal chandeliers). Additionally, -nacht ("night") suggests that the pogrom lasted just a single night, not two days.[4][6]
Shooting of Ernst vom Rath
changeOn 7 November 1938 Ernst Eduard vom Rath, a diplomat at the German Embassy in Paris, was shot by a 17-year-old Polish Jew named Herschel Grynszpan (sometimes also spelled Grünspan).[7] Two days later, vom Rath died from his injuries, and Kristallnacht began.[2]
Motivations
changeOn 26 October, the Gestapo was ordered to arrest and deport all Polish Jews living in Germany.[8] This included Grynszpan's family, which had been living in Germany since the early 1920s.[7] With at least 12,000 others,[8] the family was deported to Poland after having all of their property seized.[7] From there, they sent a postcard to Herschel (who was living in Paris), explaining what had happened and asking for help.[2][3]
After shooting vom Rath, Herschel explained that he hoped to draw the world's attention to the persecution of Jews in Nazi Germany.[9] When French police arrested him after the shooting, he said:
Being a Jew is not a crime. I am not a dog. I have a right to live and the Jewish people have a right to exist on earth. Wherever I have been I have been chased like an animal.[9]
When he was arrested, Herschel was carrying a postcard he had written to his parents, further explaining his motivations:
With God's help. My dear parents, I could not do otherwise, may God forgive me, the heart bleeds when I hear of your tragedy and that of the 12,000 Jews. I must protest so that the whole world hears my protest, and that I will do. Forgive me. Hermann [his German name].[7]
Prior shooting
changeThere had been a similar event in February 1936, when a Jewish student named David Frankfurter assassinated NSDAP Secretary Wilhelm Gustloff.[10] Hitler was furious, but unlike on Kristallnacht, he did not allow the Nazis to take revenge against Jews.[11] He wanted the upcoming 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin to be good propaganda for Nazi Germany. Scenes of violence, he worried, might cause other countries to boycott the Olympics.[11][2][3]
In 1938, Hitler no longer had these worries, and the Nazis punished tens of thousands of Jews after vom Rath's death.[2][3]
The pogrom
changeLooting and property destruction
changeKristallnacht began with massive property damage. Together the SA, the Hitler Youth, and German citizens _targeted Jewish property all across Germany, Austria, and the Sudetenland. Specifically, they:[12][13][14][2]
- Destroyed and looted Jewish homes, hospitals, schools, and about 7500 businesses
- Destroyed Jewish cemeteries
- Damaged over 1400 synagogues and prayer rooms
- Destroyed 267 synagogues completely
Assaults and killings
changeAt least 1000 Jews were killed during the night of Kristallnacht (though SS officers claimed that only 91 had died).[15] Many others were beaten or assaulted.[2]
Police reports of suicides and rapes increased after Kristallnacht.[12] A 2012 study reported that just in Austria, 680 Jews died by suicide on Kristallnacht.[16]
Arrests and deportations
changeMore than 30,000 Jewish men were arrested during Kristallnacht and imprisoned in Nazi concentration camps (primarily Dachau, Buchenwald, and Sachsenhausen).[17][18] Many died there.[14][2][3]
Intensified persecution
changeThe Nazi regime used Kristallnacht as an excuse to worsen their persecution of the Jews.[9] By the time World War II started months later, more than 200,000 had emigrated to escape this persecution.[2][3][4]
Financial punishments
changeThe Nazis decided that the Jews should be liable for all of the property damage committed during Kristallnacht.[9] They punished Jews with a collective fine of 1 billion Reichsmarks (equal to about $400,000,000 in United States dollars at the time).[4][19]
When Jews who had lost property received insurance payments, the Nazis seized them.[17] If they had more than 5,000 Reichsmarks in assets, Jews were forced to give 20% of them to the state.[4]
Many Jews had their properties forcibly taken, or had to sell and abandon their homes, stores, and businesses.
New laws
changeThe Nazi regime used the Kristallnacht as an excuse to completely remove Jews from German public life.[9][2][3]
After the pogrom, the Nazis made dozens of laws taking property and rights away from Jews. Under these laws:[12][2][3]
- "Aryan" people took over Jewish business and property, usually paying very little
- Jews were forbidden from practicing many professions, including teaching, medicine, and law (they were already ineligible for jobs in the public sector)
- Jewish children were expelled from German schools
- German Jews lost their right to have a driver's license or own an automobile
- Jews were restricted from using public transportation
- Jews could not enter “German” theaters, movie cinemas, or concert halls
Importance
changeKristallnacht was an important event leading up to the Final Solution and the Holocaust.[20] It marked Nazi Germany's change from discriminating against Jews to systematically persecuting and deporting them.[2][3]
Photo gallery
change-
Kristallnacht started after Herschel Grynzpan (above) shot Ernst vom Rath -
Grynzpan was angry that Ernst vom Rath (above) had let his family be deported -
The Nazis destroyed many synagogues, like this one in Munich -
Home movie from Vienna showing how Jewish stores were destroyed
-
A ruined synagogue in Germany -
Polish Jews being forced to leave their homes in Germany, 1938
Further reading
change- Schultheis, Herbert. Die Reichskristallnacht in Deutschland nach Augenzeugenberichten (Bad Neustädter Beiträge zur Geschichte und Heimatkunde Frankens 3). Bad Neustadt a. d. Saale: Rötter Druck und Verlag. 1985. ISBN 978-3-9800482-3-1.
References
change- ↑ United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. "Holocaust Survivors and Victims Database -- REICHSPOGROMNACHT 9. NOVEMBER 1938 : DOKUMENTATION DER REDEBEITRÄGE ZUR GEDENKVERANSTALTUNG VOM 9". Holocaust Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2024-09-24.
- ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12
- Bauer, Yehuda (1984). "The Kristallnacht as Turning Point: Jewish Reactions to Nazi Policies". Western Society After The Holocaust (1 ed.). Routledge. pp. 39–67. doi:10.4324/9780429267475-3. ISBN 9780429267475. Retrieved November 9, 2024.
- Allen, William Sheridan (1984). "The German Popular Response to Kristallnacht: Value Hierarchies vs. Propaganda". Western Society After The Holocaust (1 ed.). Routledge. pp. 69–106. doi:10.4324/9780429267475-4. ISBN 9780429267475. Retrieved November 9, 2024.
- Bodemann, Y. Michal (1996). Bodemann, Y. (ed.). Jews, Germans, Memory: Reconstructions of Jewish Life in Germany. University of Michigan Press. doi:10.3998/mpub.14841. ISBN 9780472105847. Retrieved November 9, 2024.
- Cohen, Ethan Jared (2011). "From Castile to Kristallnacht: The Similarities in the Events Preceding the Spanish Inquisition and the Nazi Holocaust" (PDF). University of Michigan Library. Retrieved November 9, 2024.
- Steinweis, Alan E. (2014). "The Historiography of the Kristallnacht". Violence, Memory, and History (1 ed.). Routledge. pp. 151–162. doi:10.4324/9781315879567-9. ISBN 9781315879567. Retrieved November 9, 2024.
- ↑ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09
- Bodemann, Y Michal (1996). "Reconstructions of history: From Jewish memory to nationalized commemoration of Kristallnacht in Germany". Jews, Germans, Memory: Reconstructions of Jewish Life in Germany. University of Michigan Press. p. 191. ISBN 0-472-10584-1. Retrieved November 10, 2024.
- Deem, James (2012). Kristallnacht: The Nazi Terror that Began the Holocaust. Enslow Publishing, LLC. ISBN 978-0-7660-3324-5. Retrieved November 10, 2024.
- Meyer, Beate; Simon, Hermann; Schütz, Chana (2009). Jews in Nazi Berlin: From Kristallnacht to Liberation. University of Chicago Press. doi:10.7208/9780226521596 (inactive 2024-11-12). Retrieved November 10, 2024.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 "9 November 1938/"Kristallnacht"". Jewish Museum Berlin. Retrieved 2024-09-24.
- ↑ Gilbert, Martin (2006). Kristallnacht: Prelude to Destruction (1st ed.). New York, NY: HarperCollins. pp. 42. ISBN 978-0-06-057083-5.
- ↑ Axelrod, Toby (2022-11-09). "In Germany, Kristallnacht goes by a different name. Here's why". The Times of Israel.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Schwab, Gerald (1990). The day the Holocaust began: the odyssey of Herschel Grynszpan. New York: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-93576-4.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 "The expulsion of Polish Jews from Germany | Holocaust". www.holocaust.cz. Retrieved 2024-09-24.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 ""Kristallnacht" | American Experience | PBS". www.pbs.org. Retrieved 2024-09-24.
- ↑ "Still Intrigued by History's Shadows; Günter Grass Worries About the Effects of War, Then and Now". The New York Times. 2003-04-08.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 "David Frankfurter – the story of the other Herschel Grynszpan". The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com. 2018-11-22. Retrieved 2024-09-24.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (2019-10-08). "Kristallnacht". Holocaust Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2024-09-24.
- ↑ Gilbert, Martin (2006). Kristallnacht: Prelude to Destruction (1st ed.). New York: HarperCollins. pp. 13–14. ISBN 978-0-06-057083-5. OCLC 62697217.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 Laqueur, Walter (July 30, 2009). "Towards the Holocaust". The Changing Face of Antisemitism: From Ancient Times to the Present Day. ISBN 9780195341218. Retrieved November 3, 2024.
- ↑ Asbjørn Svarstad. https://www.nettavisen.no/norsk-debatt/vare-joder-er-nordmenn-ikke-israelere/o/5-95-1443876. Nettavisen.no. Retrieved 2023-11-09
- ↑ Sonneck, Gernot; Hirnsperger, Hans; Mundschütz, Reinhard (2012). "Suizid und Suizidprävention 1938-1945 in Wien [Suicide and suicide prevention in Vienna from 1938 to 1945]". Neuropsychiatrie (In German). 26 (3): 111–120. doi:10.1007/s40211-012-0032-8. PMID 23055305.
The suicide problem was very prevalent - alone on the "Reichskristallnacht" - 9/10. November 1938 - 680 Jews in Austria died by suicide.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ 17.0 17.1 Rac, Katalin. "Research Guides: Jewish Studies Research Guide: Kristallnacht: November 9–10, 1938". Emory University Library. Retrieved 2024-09-24.
- ↑ Taylor, Alan (2011-06-19). "World War II: Before the War". The Atlantic.
- ↑ "Tax Assessment For Kristallnacht Damage". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 2024-09-24.
- ↑ Multiple. "Kristallnacht". The Hutchinson Encyclopedia (18th ed.). London: Helicon. pp. 1, 199. ISBN 1-85833-951-0.