Russia
Russia (Russian: Россия, romanized: Rossiya, [rɐˈsʲijə]), panji kuti Wupu wa Russia,[lower-alpha 3] ni charu icho chili ku chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Europe na kumpoto kwa Asia. Ni caru cikuru comene pa caru capasi, ndipo cikupanga cigaŵa cimoza pa vigaŵa vinkhondi na cimoza pa vigaŵa vyose vya caru capasi. Charu cha Russia chili na vigaŵa 11 vya nyengo ndipo chili na vyaru 14. Ni caru cacinkhondi na cinayi pa vyaru ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵanandi comene pa caru cose ndiposo caciŵiri pa vyaru ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵanandi comene mu Europe. Msumba ukuru wa Russia ni Moscow. Msumba wa St. Petersburg ndiwo ni msumba ukuru comene wa Russia. Malo ghanyake ghakurughakuru mu charu ichi ni Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod, Chelyabinsk, Krasnoyarsk, na Kazan.
| Wupu wa Russia Российская Федерация (Russian)
|
||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
||||||
| Nyimbo: Государственный гимн Российской Федерации Gosudarstvennyy gimn Rossiyskoy Federatsii "State Anthem of the Russian Federation" |
||||||
[[File:  |
||||||
| Msumba Waboma kweneso Msumba Usani | Moscow | |||||
| Official and national language | Russian[3] | |||||
| Recognised regional languages | See Languages of Russia § Official languages | |||||
| Mitundu ya Ŵanthu (2021, including Russia and Crimea) | ||||||
| Vipembezo |
|
|||||
| Mwenecharu | Russian | |||||
| Mtundu wa Boma | Federal semi-presidential republic under an authoritarian dictatorship[7][8][9][10] | |||||
| - | President | Vladimir Putin | ||||
| - | Prime Minister | Mikhail Mishustin | ||||
| - | Upper house | Federation Council | ||||
| - | Lower house | State Duma | ||||
| Formation | ||||||
| - | Kievan Rus' | 879 | ||||
| - | Vladimir-Suzdal | 1157 | ||||
| - | Grand Duchy of Moscow |
1263 | ||||
| - | Tsardom of Russia | 16 January 1547 | ||||
| - | Russian Empire | 2 November 1721 | ||||
| - | Monarchy abolished | 15 March 1917 | ||||
| - | Soviet Union | 30 December 1922 | ||||
| - | Declaration of State Sovereignty |
12 June 1990 | ||||
| - | Russian Federation | 12 December 1991 | ||||
| - | Current constitution | 12 December 1993 | ||||
| - | Union State formed | 8 December 1999 | ||||
| Ukulu wa Malo | ||||||
| - | Malo | 17,098,246 km2[11] (within internationally recognised borders)
17,234,028 km2 (6,654,095 sq mi) (including claimed territories) (1st) Expression error: Unrecognized punctuation character ",". sq mi |
||||
| - | Maji (%) | 13[12] (including swamps) | ||||
| Chiŵelengelo cha ŵanthu | ||||||
| - | 2022 estimate |
|
||||
| - | Density | 8.4/km2 (181st) 21.5/sq mi |
||||
| GDP (PPP) | 2022 estimate | |||||
| - | Total |  $4.771 trillion[15] |
||||
| - | Per capita | $33,263[15] |
||||
| GDP (nominal) | 2022 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $2.215 trillion[15] |
||||
| - | Per capita | $15,444[15] |
||||
| Gini (2020) |  36.0[16]medium |
|||||
| HDI (2021) | 0.822[17] very high ·52nd |
|||||
| Ndalama | Ruble (₽) (RUB) |
|||||
| Mtundu Wanyengo | (UTC+2 to +12) | |||||
| Woko la galimoto | right | |||||
| Intaneti yacharu | ||||||
Ŵanthu ŵa ku East Slav ŵakamba kukhala ku Europe pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 300 na 800 C.E. Boma lakwamba la ŵanthu ŵa ku East Slavic, la Kievan Rus', likaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 900 C.E., ndipo mu 988, likamba kugomezga Chikhristu cha Orthodox kufuma ku Ufumu wa Byzantium. Paumaliro, caru ca Russia cikamara, ndipo ufumu wa Grand Duchy wa Moscow ukakura na kuzgoka Ufumu wa Russia. Kuzakafika kuuyambiro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, charu cha Russia chikakura chomene chifukwa cha kuthereska ŵanthu na kuŵawukira. Ndipouli, apo ku Russia kukawuka vivulupi mu 1917, muwuso wa ufumu wa Russia ukamara ndipo pamasinda SFSR yikamba kulamulira. Pamanyuma pa Nkhondo ya ku Russia, Soviet Socialist Socialist Republic of Russia yikambiska Soviet Union pamoza na vyaru vinyake vitatu vya Soviet Union. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1930, Soviet Union yikasuzgika chomene na vinthu vya m'ma 1930. Apo Nkhondo Yakuzizima yikambanga, charu cha Russia chikamba kuphalizgana na charu cha United States kuti chiŵe na maghanoghano ghakupambanapambana pa charu chose.
Mu 1991, boma la Russia SFSR likafuma mu wupu wa Soviet Union. Dango liphya likapelekeka, ilo likakhazikiska muwuso wa boma. Kufuma waka apo vyaka vya m'ma 1900 vikambira, boma la Russia likuwusika na Vladimir Putin. Russia wali kunjilirapo pa nkhondo zinandi izo zikacitika mu nyengo ya Soviet Union, kusazgapo kupoka Crimea mu 2014 kufuma ku Ukraine.
Pa caru cose, caru ca Russia nchakutowa comene pa nkhani ya demokilase, wanangwa wa ŵanthu, na wanangwa wa vyalo. Charu cha Russia chili pa nambara 11 pa nkhani ya GDP. Vinthu vyakununkhira na nkhongono ivyo charu ichi chili navyo ni vikuru comene pa caru cose, ndipo mafuta na gasi ivyo vikusangika mu caru ici ni vyakuzirwa comene. Pa caru cose, caru ca Russia cili na vilwero vya nyukiliya vinandi comene, ndipo ni cacitatu pa vyaru ivyo vili na vilwero vya nkhondo vinandi. Charu ichi chili mu wupu wa United Nations Security Council; nchigaŵa ca G20, SCO, BRICS, APEC, OSCE, na WTO; ndipo nchigaŵa cikuru comene ca mawupu agho ghakaŵako pamanyuma pa Soviet Union nga ni CIS, CSTO, na Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU). Ku Russia kuli malo 30 agho ghali kulembeka na wupu wa UNESCO kuti ni malo ghakukondweska ŵanthu.
Kwiza kwa zina
Zina lakuti Russia lili kufuma ku lizgu Lachilatini lakuti Rus' ilo likung'anamura charu icho chikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku East Slavs.[18][19] Mu mabuku gha mdauko wa mazuŵa ghano, boma ili likuchemeka Kiev Rus' chifukwa cha msumba wake ukuru. Zina lakuti Rus' likufuma ku ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga ku Russia, awo ŵakaŵa ŵamalonda na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Scandinavia awo ŵakafuma ku nyanja ya Baltic na kwamba kukhala ku Novgorod, ndipo pamanyuma ŵakambiska boma la Kiev. Zina linyake la Cilatini ilo likazunulika kuti Rus' likaŵa Ruthenia.[20]
Mu Chirasha, zina la lero la charu ichi, Россия (Rossiya), likufuma ku zina la Chigiriki la Byzantine la Rus', Ρωσία (Rosía). Zina lakuti Rus' (Росия) lili kufuma ku lizgu Lachigiriki ndipo likasangika mu 1387. Kweni likamba kugwiliskirika ntchito mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500. Mu Chirasha muli mazgu ghaŵiri agho ghakung'anamulika kuti "ŴaciRussian" mu Cingelezi kuti: Russian (russkiye), agho ghakung'anamura ŵanthu ŵa ciyowoyero ca ku Russia, na Russian (rossiyane), agho ghakung'anamura ŵanthu ŵa ciyowoyero ca ku Russia, kwali mba fuko wuli.[21][22]
Mbili
Mbiri yakwambilira
Malo ghakwamba agho ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga ku Russia ghakaŵako mu nyengo ya Oldowan mu nyengo ya Lower Paleolithic. Vyaka pafupifupi 2 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo erectus ŵakaluta ku Taman Peninsula, kumwera kwa Russia.[23] Vinthu vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito vyaka pafupifupi 1.5 miliyoni ivyo ŵakavisanga ku North Caucasus. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikulongora kuti munthu uyu wakaŵako vyaka 195,122,700 ivyo vyajumpha. Mu mphanji iyi mukaŵaso viswaswa vya munthu munyake zina lake Denny, uyo wakababika mu nyengo yakale chomene. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Russia ndiwo ŵakakhalako vyaka pafupifupi 45,000 ivyo vyajumpha.[24]
Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakaŵako mu nyengo yithu iyi ŵakaŵako vyaka 45,000 ivyo vyajumpha, ku Western Siberia. Ŵakasanga viswaswa vya ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano vyaka 40,000 ivyo vyafuma ku Kostyonki Borshchyovo na Sungir, vyaka 34,600 ivyo vyafuma ku Russia. Ŵanthu ŵakafika ku Russia vyaka pafupifupi 40,000 ivyo vyajumpha, ku Mamontovaya Kurya. Ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku Siberia awo ŵakakhalanga ku North Eurasia, awo ŵakayananga na ŵanthu ŵa ku Mal'ta Buret na Afontova Gora, ndiwo ŵakapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku America na ŵanthu ŵa ku Eastern Hunter-Gatherers ŵakhalenge ku malo agha.[25]
Chiphunzitso cha Kurgan chikulongora kuti chigaŵa cha Volga-Dnieper icho chili kumwera kwa Russia na Ukraine ndicho chikaŵa chakwamba kwa ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Indo-Europe awo ŵakafuma ku vigaŵa vya ku Pontic-Caspian ku Ukraine na Russia ŵakamba kuyowoya viyowoyero vya Yamnaya na viyowoyero vya ku Indo-Europe mu vigaŵa vinandi vya ku Eurasia. Vinyama vya viŵeto vikamba kukhala mu chipalamba cha Pontic-Caspian mu nyengo ya Chalcolithic. Vinthu ivyo vikakhalako vya ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa ivi vikasangika ku malo nga ni Ipatovo, Sintashta, Arkaim, na Pazyryk. Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga viyowoyero vya ku Urals kumpoto kwa Europe, ŵakamba kusama kufuma ku Siberia vyaka 3,500 ivyo vyajumpha.[27]
Mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 C.E. m'paka 400 C.E., ufumu wa Oium ukaŵa kumwera kwa Russia. Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 300 na 600 C.E., Ufumu wa Bosporus, uwo ukaŵa ufumu wa Ŵagiriki, nawo ukaparanyika chifukwa cha kuwukira kwa ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake nga ni Hun na Avars. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khazars, awo ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Turkey, ndiwo ŵakalongozganga chigaŵa cha ku Caucasus kumwera, kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Mlonga wa Volga, na kumanjiliro gha dazi m'paka ku Kyiv pa Mlonga wa Dnieper m'paka mu 100 C.E. Pamanyuma pa iwo, Ŵachichenichi ŵakamba kuwungana pamoza, ndipo pamasinda Ŵacumani na Ŵachipaki ŵakamba kuwungana.
Ŵasekuru ŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia ŵali kufuma ku mafuko gha Ŵaslaviki agho ghakapambana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Indo-Europe awo ŵakaŵako kumpoto kwa Europe vyaka 1,500 ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu ŵa ku East Slavs ŵakamba kukhala ku Russia mu vigaŵa viŵiri. Chimoza chikafuma ku Kiev na kuluta ku Suzdal na Murom, ndipo chinyake chikafuma ku Polotsk na kuluta ku Novgorod na Rostov. Kwambira mu ma 700 C.E., ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Russia ŵakaŵa ŵa ku East Slavs.[28]
Kievan Rus'
Mu vyaka vya m'ma 900 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku East Slavic ŵakamba kukhala mu vyaru vya Varangians, awo ŵakaŵa Ŵaviking awo ŵakendanga mu maji kufuma kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Baltic kuya ku Black na Caspian Seas. Mu 882, Oleg, uyo wakanjira mu ufumu wake, wakaluta kumwera na kuwukira Kiev, uko kale kukaŵanga na ŵanthu awo ŵakapelekanga mithulo ku Ŵakazari. Mwana wa Rurik, Igor, na mwana wa Igor, Sviatoslav, ŵakathereska mafuko ghose gha ku East Slavic, ŵakaparanya Khazar Khaganate, ndipo ŵakaluta ku Byzantium na Persia.[29][30]
Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 m'paka mu 1100, caru ca Kievan Rus' cikazgoka cimoza mwa vyaru vikuru comene na vyakutukuka comene mu Europe. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Vladimir Mukuru (980-1015) na mwana wake Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054) kukaŵa nyengo ya golide ku Kiev. Nyengo ya muwuso wa ŵasilikari na kuleka kwendera boma yikaŵa kuti yakwana. Chigaŵa cha Kiev chikamba kuchepa, ndipo chikaŵa ku chigaŵa cha Vladimir-Suzdal, kumpoto, Novgorod Republic, na Galicia-Volhynia, kumwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi. Kuzakafika m'ma 1200 C.E., Kiev yikaŵa kuti yindaŵepo na mazaza pa caru cose, ndipo yikaŵa kuti yagawikana mu vigaŵa vinandi. Fumu Andrey Bogolyubsky yikawukira Kiev mu 1169 ndipo yikapangiska Vladimir kuŵa msasa wake.[28]
Ŵanalume ŵa ku Novgorod awo ŵakalongozgekanga na fumu Alexander Nevsky, ŵakathereska Ŵaswede mu Nkhondo ya ku Neva mu 1240, kweniso ŵakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa ku Germany mu Nkhondo ya ku Ice mu 1242.
Paumaliro, Ŵamongoliya ŵakanjira mu charu cha Kievan Rus mu 1237 na 1240. Ŵalwani aŵa, awo pamasinda ŵakacemeka kuti Ŵataliyani, ndiwo ŵakambiska ufumu wa Golden Horde, uwo ukawusa Russia kwa vilimika vinandi. Boma la Novgorod ndilo likapona ku ŵasilikari ŵacilendo apo likajipeleka na kuzomera kupeleka msonkho ku Ŵa Mongol. Pamanyuma, chigaŵa cha Galicia-Volhynia chikapokeka na Lithuania na Poland, ndipo chigaŵa cha Novgorod chikalutilira kukura kumpoto. Ku mpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi, mitheto ya Byzantine-Slavic iyo yikaŵa mu caru ca Kievan Rus' yikasintha na kupanga boma la Russia.[28]
Grand Duchy ya Moscow
Kuwuskika kwa charu cha Kievan Rus' kukapangiska kuti ufumu wa Grand Duchy of Moscow, uwo pakwamba ukaŵa chigaŵa cha Vladimir-Suzdal, uŵeko. Apo mpositole wa Tchalitchi la Orthodox ku Russia wakasamira ku Moscow mu 1325, nkhongono zake zikakura comene. Ufumu wa Novgorod, uwo ukaŵa mulwani waumaliro wa Moscow, ndiwo ukaŵa msumba ukuru wa malonda gha vikumba vya nyama na dowoko lakumafumiro gha dazi chomene la Hanseatic League.[31]
Mu 1380, ŵasilikari ŵa ufumu wa Russia ŵakathereska Ŵamongoliya na Ŵatata mu Nkhondo ya Kulikovo. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, Moscow wakayamba kulamulira vigaŵa vinyake nga ni Tver na Novgorod.
Ivan III ("Mukuru") wakawuskapo ufumu wa Golden Horde na kukhozga charu chose cha kumpoto kwa Russia. Mu 1453, msumba wa Constantinople ukati wabwangandulika, boma la Moscow likati ndilo liŵenge themba la Ufumu wa Roma. Ivan III wakatora Sophia Palaiologina, muzukuru wa Constantine XI, themba la ku Byzantium, ndipo wakazgora nombo ya nombo ya ku Byzantium kuŵa yake, ndipo pamanyuma yikazgoka ya Russia. Vasili III wakakolerana na caru cose ca Russia mwa kunjizga vyaru vinyake vya ku Russia ivyo vikaŵa vyambura mazaza mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500.[32]
Tsardom wa Russia
Mu 1547, Themba Ivan IV ("Wakofya") ndilo likaŵa themba lakwamba la Russia. Themba ili likapeleka malango ghaphya (Sudebnik wa mu 1550), likakhazikiska wupu wakwimira boma la Russia (Zemsky Sobor), likasintha ŵasilikari, likakanizga ŵalongozgi ŵa visopa kuti ŵaleke kuŵa na mazaza pa ŵanthu, ndipo likambaso kuwunganya maboma. Pa nyengo iyo wakaŵira themba, Ivan wakasazgirako pafupifupi malo ghaŵiri gha Russia agho ghakaŵa ghakuru chomene. Paumaliro, kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1500, caru ca Russia cikamba kwenda kumafumiro gha dazi kwa mapiri gha Ural. Ndipouli, ufumu wa Tsardom ukalopwa cifukwa ca Nkhondo ya ku Livonia iyo yikacitika kwa nyengo yitali, ndipo yikaŵa yambura kucitika makora. Mu 1572, ŵasilikari ŵa Crimean Tatars ŵakathereskeka pa Nkhondo ya Molodi.[33]
Nyifwa ya ŵana ŵa Ivan yikapangiska kuti muwuso wa Rurik umare mu 1598, ndipo njara yikuru iyo yikachitika mu 1601-1603 yikapangiska kuti paŵe nkhondo ya pawenenawene. Boma la Poland na Lithuania likapoka vigaŵa vinyake vya Russia na kufika ku Moscow. Mu 1612, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Russia awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Muwukirano Kuzma Minin na fumu Dmitry Pozharsky, ŵakachimbizga Ŵapoliki. Mu 1613, nyumba ya ŵawusi ya ŵa Romanov yikamba kuwusa, ndipo charu chikamba kuchira.
Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, caru ca Russia cikalutilira kukura. Mu 1654, mulongozgi wa ku Ukraine, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, wakapeleka Ukraine ku muwuso wa themba la Russia, Alexis. Paumaliro, Ukraine yikagaŵikana mumphepete mwa Dnieper, ndipo chigaŵa chakumafumiro gha dazi (Left-bank Ukraine na Kiev) chikaŵa pasi pa boma la Russia. Ku chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi, ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia ŵakalutilira kupenja vinthu vyakuzirwa nga ni vikumba na mino gha zovu. Ŵalendo ŵa ku Russia ŵakendanga kumafumiro gha dazi chomene na nthowa za ku Siberia, ndipo m'ma 1700, kukaŵa vyaru vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia ŵakakhalanga kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Siberia, ku Chukchi Peninsula, mumphepete mwa Mlonga wa Amur, na mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Pacific. Mu 1648, Semyon Dezhnyov wakaŵa munthu wakwamba wa ku Europe kwendera mu nyanja ya Bering Strait.[34]
Ufumu wa Russia
Mu 1721, mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Peter Mukuru, caru ca Russia cikazgoka ufumu, ndipo cikaŵa cimoza mwa vyaru vikuru comene vya ku Europe. Peter wakawusa kwambira mu 1682 m'paka 1725, ndipo wakathereska Sweden mu Nkhondo Yikuru ya ku Northern (1700-1721) ndipo wakawovwira kuti Russia yambe kwenda pa nyanja. Mu 1703, Petrosi wakazenga msumba wa St. Petersburg, uwo uli mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Baltic. Mu nyengo yose iyo wakalamuliranga, vinthu vikasintha chomene mu charu cha Russia. Mu nyengo ya kuwusa kwa mwana mwanakazi wa Peter I, Elizabeti mu 1741-1762, caru ca Russia cikamba kurwa nkhondo ya vilimika vinkhondi na viŵiri (1756-1763). Apo nkhondo yikaŵa mukati, ŵasilikari ŵa Russia ŵakanjira mu East Prussia na kufika ku Berlin. Kweni Elizabeti wakati wafwa, vinthu vyose ivi vikawezgeka ku Ufumu wa Prussia na Peter III wa ku Russia.[35]
Catherine II ("Mukuru"), uyo wakawusa mu 1762-1796, ndiyo wakawusa mu nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakasambizgikiranga vinthu mu Russia. Wakapeleka mazaza gha ndyali ku Russia pa charu cha Poland na Lithuania, ndipo wakawunjika vigaŵa vinandi mu Russia. Kumwera, pamanyuma pa Nkhondo za ku Russia na Turkey, Catherine wakawoneseska kuti mphaka ya Russia yifike ku Nyanja Yiswesi. Cifukwa ca kuthereska Ŵaqajar ku Iran mu Nkhondo za ku Russia na Peresiya, mu hafu yakwamba ya vyaka vya m'ma 1800, caru ca Russia cikathereskaso caru ca Caucasus. Mwana wake Paul, uyo wakanjira mu malo gha Catherine, wakaŵa wambura kukhazikika ndipo wakatemwanga chomene vinthu vya mu nyumba. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yichoko waka kufuma apo wakawusira, Alexander I (1801-1825) wakathereska charu cha Finland ku Sweden mu 1809 na Bessarabia ku Ottomans mu 1812. Ku North America, ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakwamba kufika ku Alaska na kukhalamo. Mu 1803-1806, ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia ŵakazingilira charu. Mu 1820, ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia ŵakasanga charu cha Antarctica.[36]
Nkhongono yikuru na kukura kwa ŵanthu, sayansi na luso
Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo za Napoleon, Russia wakakolerana na maboma gha ku Europe, ndipo wakarwa nkhondo na France. Nkhondo ya ku France iyo yikafika ku Russia mu 1812 yikafika ku Moscow, kweni yikathera yayi chifukwa ŵanthu ŵakagomezgeka yayi, kweniso nyengo yakuzizima ya ku Russia yikatimbanizga ŵasilikari. Ŵasilikari ŵa Ufumu wa Russia, awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Mikhail Kutuzov na Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly, ŵakawuskapo Napoleon na kwenda mu Europe yose mu Nkhondo ya Gulu Lachinkhondi na Chimoza. Alexander I ndiyo wakalongozganga ŵimiliri ŵa ku Russia pa ungano wa ku Vienna, uwo ukalongosora umo caru ca ku Europe cikaŵira pamanyuma pa nyengo ya Napoleon.[37]
Ŵasilikari awo ŵakalondezganga Napoleon mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Europe ŵakiza na maghanoghano gha ku Russia, ndipo ŵakayezga kukanizga mazaza gha fumu mu nyengo ya kuwukira kwa Decembrist mu 1825. Paumaliro wa muwuso wa Nicholas I (1825-1855), nyengo iyo ufumu wa Russia ukaŵa na nkhongono zinandi ku Europe, yikamara chifukwa cha kutondeka ku nkhondo ya ku Crimea.[38]
Kusintha Kwambiri kwa Chikhalidwe ndi Chikapitale
Alexander II (1855-1881) uyo wakanjira mu malo gha Nicholas, wakasintha vinthu vinandi mu charu chose, kusazgapo kusintha kwa boma mu 1861. Vinthu ivi vikawovwira kuti vinthu vyendenge makora mu charu cha Russia, ndipo vikawovwira kuti ŵasilikari ŵa Ufumu wa Russia ŵambe kugwira ntchito mazuŵa ghano. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 na m'ma 1900, Russia na Britain ŵakakolerananga pa nkhani ya Afghanistan na vigaŵa vinyake vya ku Central na South Asia.
Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ku Russia kukawuka magulu ghakupambanapambana gha ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti vinthu vyende makora. Mu 1881, Alexander II wakakomeka na ŵanthu ŵakugaluka. Muwuso wa mwana wake Alexander III (1881-1894) ukaŵa wambura kujikora kweni wamtende.[39]
Ufumu wa Wupu Wakulongozga na Nkhondo ya Caru Cose
Mu nyengo ya muwusi waumaliro wa Russia, Nicholas II (1894-1917), Nkhondo ya ku Russia na Japan yikatimbanizgika. Nkhondo iyi yikamara, kweni boma likakanizgika kusintha vinthu vinandi.[40]
Kuwukira na nkhondo ya cikaya
Mu 1914, caru ca Russia cikanjira mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose cifukwa cakuti Austria-Hungary yikapharazga kuti yikukhumba kurwa nkhondo na Serbia. Mu 1916, ŵasilikari ŵa Ufumu wa Russia ŵakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Austria na Hungary. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵakagomezganga yayi kuti boma ili lichitenge vinthu mwamahara. Vyose ivi vikawovwira kuti paŵe Nkhondo Yakwamba ya ku Russia mu 1917, iyo yikacitika mu vigaŵa viŵiri vikuruvikuru. Kukwambilira kwa 1917, Nicholas II wakacicizgika kuleka ufumu wake. Iyo na mbumba yake ŵakakakika ndipo pamanyuma ŵakakomeka pa Nkhondo ya pa Cikaya ya ku Russia. Mu ufumu wa ufumu uwu mukaŵa magulu gha ndyali agho ghakajiphara kuti ni boma la kanyengo kachoko, ndipo ghakapharazga kuti ni charu cha Russia. Pa Janyuwale 19 [O.S. 6 January], 1918, Russian Constituent Assembly yikapharazga kuti Russia ni fuko la demokilase (pakuzomerezga fundo ya boma la kanyengo). Zuŵa lakulondezgapo, Wupu Wakulongozga ukawuskapo ungano uwu.
Pa nyengo iyi, pakaŵaso wupu unyake wa Petrograd Soviet, uwo ukaŵa na mazaza gha kuwusa mu vyaru vinyake. Boma liphya likasazgirako waka suzgo mu caru m'malo mwa kulimazga, ndipo paumaliro, Nkhondo ya Okutobala, iyo yikalongozgekanga na Vladimir Lenin, yikathereska boma la nyengo yicoko na kupeleka mazaza ghose ku maboma gha Soviet, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti caru cikhazikike. Nkhondo ya ku Russia yikamba pakati pa gulu la White movement na Bolsheviks. Pamanyuma pa kusazga phangano la Brest-Litovsk ilo likamalizga nkhondo na ŵamazaza ŵa ku Central Powers mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose, caru ca Russia cikapeleka vigaŵa vyake vinandi vya kumanjiliro gha dazi, umo mukaŵa 34% ya ŵanthu ŵake, 54% ya mafakitale ghake, 32% ya vyaru vyake, na pafupifupi 90% ya migodi yake ya malasha.[41]
Ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinyake ŵakacita nkhondo kuti ŵawovwire ŵasilikari awo ŵakasuskanga boma la Germany. Pa nyengo yeneyira, ŵa Bolshevik na ŵa White ŵakacitiskana nkhondo ya kusonkhaniska ŵanthu na kuŵakoma. Paumaliro wa nkhondo ya pawenenawene, chuma na vinthu vinyake vya ku Russia vikaparanyika comene, ndipo ŵanthu pafupifupi 10 miliyoni ŵakafwa pa nkhondo iyi, comenecomene ŵanthu bweka. Ŵanthu mamiliyoni ghanandi ŵakafuma mu vyaru vyawo na kuluta ku vyaru vinyake.[42]
Soviet Union
Command economy and Soviet society
Pa Disembala 30, 1922, Lenin na ŵantchito ŵake ŵakapanga Soviet Union, ndipo ŵakasazga Soviet Socialist Republic of Russia na vyaru vya Belarus, Transcaucasia, na Ukraine. Paumaliro, pa nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose, caru cikaŵa na vyaru 15 ivyo vikakolerananga.
Pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya Lenin mu 1924, gulu la ŵasilikari ŵatatu likimikika kuti licitenge mulimo uwu. Paumaliro, Joseph Stalin, mulembi mukuru wa chipani cha Communist Party, wakamazga magulu ghose ghakwimikana na boma na kukhozga mazaza ghake mwakuti waŵe muwusi wankhongono wa caru mu ma 1930. Leon Trotsky, uyo wakaŵa wakuwovwira comene pa kusintha vinthu pa caru cose, wakacimbizgika mu Soviet Union mu 1929, ndipo fundo ya Stalin yakuti Socialism in One Country yikazgoka fundo ya boma. Nkhondo iyo yikalutilira mukati mwa chipani cha Bolshevik yikafika paheni comene.[43]
Stalinism and violent modernization
Mu muwuso wa Stalin, boma likambiska vinthu vyakuti ŵanthu ŵagwirenge ntchito mwakufwatuka, kupanga vyamuminda, na kupanga vyakurya vinandi. Mu nyengo iyi, vinthu vikasinthanga comene pa nkhani ya cuma na umoyo wa ŵanthu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakatumizgika ku misasa yakuyuzgirako ŵanthu, kusazgapo ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakakika cifukwa ca ndyali. Mu 1932-33 mu Soviet Union mukaŵa njara yikuru, ndipo ŵanthu 8.7 miliyoni ŵakafwa. Paumaliro, mu nyengo yicoko waka, Soviet Union yikasintha kufuma ku cuma ico cikagwiranga nchito ya vyakurya kuya ku caru ico cikagwiranga nchito ya kupanga vinthu.[44]
World War II and United Nations
Soviet Union yikanjira mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose pa Seputembala 17, 1939 apo yikawukira Poland, mwakuyana na dango lakubisika la Molotov Ribbentrop Pact na Nazi Germany.[45] Pa 22 Juni, 1941, Germany yikawukira Soviet Union, ndipo yikajura chigaŵa chikuru chomene cha Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose.
Paumaliro, ŵasilikari pafupifupi 5 miliyoni ŵa Red Army ŵakakoleka na Nazi;:272 Ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakakomeka na njara panji ŵakakoma ŵanthu 3.3 miliyoni ŵa ku Soviet, kweniso ŵanthu ŵanandi, pakuti "Ndara" yikaŵa ndondomeko ya kufiska Generalplan Ost.:175-186 Nangauli ŵasilikari ŵa German ŵakaŵa na viwemi vyakwambilira, kweni nkhondo ya ku Moscow yikaŵakoma. Pamanyuma, Ŵachijeremani ŵakathereskeka comene pakwamba pa Nkhondo ya Stalingrad mu nyengo ya cihanya ya 1942-1943 ndipo pamanyuma pa Nkhondo ya Kursk mu cihanya ca 1943.[46] Kuwina kunyake uko Ŵachijeremani ŵakacita kukaŵa kuzingilizga msumba wa Leningrad, uko msumba uwu ukazingilizgika na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Germany na Finland pakati pa 1941 na 1944. Ŵasilikari ŵa Soviet ŵakaluta ku vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi na vya pakati pa Europe mu 1944 na 1945, ndipo ŵakapoka Berlin mu Meyi 1945. Mu Ogasiti 1945, ŵasilikari ŵa Reds ŵakanjira mu charu cha Manchuria na kuchimbizga Ŵapaniya ku North East Asia.
Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose ya mu 1941 m'paka mu 1945, ku Russia ŵakachemanga kuti Nkhondo Yikuru ya Charu. Soviet Union, pamoza na United States, United Kingdom na China ŵakawonekanga kuti ni Big Four of Allied powers mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose, ndipo pamasinda ŵakazgoka Four Policemen, iyo yikaŵa musisi wa United Nations Security Council.:27 Mu nyengo ya nkhondo, ŵanthu pafupifupi 2627 miliyoni ŵakafwa pa nkhondo iyi. Ndipouli, Soviet Union yikajipeleka comene kuti yiŵe ufumu wankhongono pa caru cose.[47]
Superpower and Cold War
Pamanyuma pa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose, vigaŵa vinyake vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Europe, na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Austria, vikapokeka na ŵasilikari ŵa Red Army. Maboma gha Chikomyunizimu ghakaŵapo mu vyaru vya ku Eastern Bloc. Nkhondo iyi yikati yamara, Soviet Union yikamba kulimbana na ŵasilikari ŵa United States na NATO.[48]
Khrushchev Thaw reforms and economic development
Pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya Stalin mu 1953 na nyengo yifupi ya muwuso wa wupu, mulongozgi muphya Nikita Khrushchev wakachenya Stalin ndipo wakambiska ndondomeko ya kulekeska Stalin, kufumiska ŵakayidi ŵanandi ŵa ndyali mu misasa ya Gulag. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, vinthu vikamba kwenda makora. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo pera, nkhondo ya pa caru cose yikafika paheni comene apo ŵasilikari ŵaŵiri aŵa ŵakasuskananga pa nkhani ya kuŵika mabomba gha Jupiter ku Turkey na mabomba gha Soviet ku Cuba.
Mu 1957, Soviet Union yikaponya pa mtunda satellite yakwamba pa caru cose yakucemeka Sputnik 1. Munthu wakwamba kuzingilira caru capasi wakaŵa Yuri Gagarin, uyo wakaluta pa Vostok 1 pa Epulero 12, 1961.[49]
Period of developed socialism or Era of Stagnation
Khrushchev wakati waparanyika mu 1964, pakaŵaso muwuso unyake wa ŵanthu wose, m'paka apo Leonid Brezhnev wakaŵira mulongozgi. Nyengo ya m'ma 1970 na kuuyambiro wa m'ma 1980 yikamanyikwa kuti nyengo ya kukhazikika. Mu 1965, boma la Soviet likasintha vinthu vinyake mu Soviet Union. Mu 1979, ŵasilikari ŵa Soviet ŵakanjira mu charu ichi, ndipo paumaliro nkhondo ya ku Afghanistan yikamba. Mu Meyi 1988, ŵasilikari ŵa Soviet ŵakamba kufumamo mu Afghanistan, cifukwa ca ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose awo ŵakasuskanga ŵasilikari ŵa Soviet, nkhondo ya kuwukira ŵasilikari ŵa Soviet, ndiposo cifukwa ca kuleka kukhozgeka na ŵanthu ŵa Soviet.[50]
Perestroika, democratization and Russian sovereignty
Kwambira mu 1985, mulongozgi waumaliro wa Soviet, Mikhail Gorbachev, uyo wakakhumbanga kusintha vinthu mu Soviet Union, wakambiska ndondomeko ya glasnost (kujulika) na perestroika (kuweleramo mu vinthu vinyake) kuti wamazge suzgo la vyachuma na kuzgora boma kuŵa la ŵanthu ŵanandi. Ndipouli, ici cikapangiska kuti mu caru cose muŵe vyaru vyakupambanapambana. Pambere caka ca 1991 cindafike, caru ca Soviet Union cikaŵa caciŵiri pa vyaru ivyo vikaŵa na cuma cikuru comene, kweni mu vilimika vyaumaliro vya umoyo wake, cikaŵa mu suzgo.
Mu 1991, vinthu vikamba kunangika mu vyaru vya ku Baltic apo vyaru ivi vikafumako ku Soviet Union. Pa Malichi 17, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakazomerezga kuti Soviet Union yiŵe wupu wakukolerana. Mu Juni 1991, Boris Yeltsin wakaŵa pulezidenti wakwamba uyo wakasankhika mwakudunjika mu Russia. Mu Ogasiti 1991, boma la Gorbachev likayezga kuwuskapo boma, ndipo likaŵa na cilato cakuti likhalilire mu Soviet Union. Pa Disembala 25, 1991, pamanyuma pa kuparanyika kwa Soviet Union, pamoza na Russia wa mazuŵa ghano, vyaru vinyake 14 vikafuma mu wupu wa Soviet Union.[51]
Independent Russian Federation
Transition to a market economy and political crises
Charu cha Russia chikaŵa mu suzgo yikuru chifukwa cha suzgo la vyachuma na ndyali. Pa nyengo iyo Soviet Union yikaparanyikira na pamanyuma pake, pakaŵa kusintha kukuru, kusazgapo kupanikizga vinthu vya boma na kulekeska malonda, kusazgapo kusintha kukuru kwa vinthu nga ni "chock therapy". Kuŵika vinthu vya boma pa malo ghake kukapangiska kuti maboma gha Russia ghaleke kulamulira mabungwe gha boma na kwamba kulamulira ŵanthu awo ŵakamanyikwanga na boma. Ŵanandi awo ŵakaŵa ŵasambazi ŵakawuskamo ndalama zinandi mu charu ichi. Kuchepa kwa ndalama kukapangiska kuti vinthu vyendenge makora yayi mu charu. Chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakubabika chikakhira chomene, ndipo ŵanthu mamiliyoni ghanandi ŵakamba kusuzgika na ukavu.
Kuumaliro wa 1993, mphindano pakati pa Yeltsin na Nyumba ya Malamulo ya Russia zikakura comene mwakuti pakaŵa suzgo la ndyali. Mu nyengo ya suzgo iyi, Yeltsin wakawovwirika na maboma gha ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 100 ŵakakomeka.[52]
Modern liberal constitution, international cooperation and economic stabilization
Mu Disembala, ŵakachita pharazgo na kuzomerezga dango liphya ilo likapa pulezidenti mazaza ghakuru. M'ma 1990, ku North Caucasus kukaŵa nkhondo, kuswa malango kwa mafuko na kugaluka kwa ŵanthu ŵa chisopa cha Islam. Kufuma waka apo ŵasilikari ŵa ku Chechnya ŵakapharazgira kuti ŵajiyimire ŵekha mu ma 1990, nkhondo ya ŵasilikari yikamba pakati pa gulu la ŵakugaluka na ŵasilikari ŵa Russia. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Chechnya ndiwo ŵakacitiska vivulupi na kukoma ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Russia.
Pamanyuma pakuti Soviet Union yaparanyika, Russia ndiyo wakeneranga kulipira ngongoli za caru ici. Mu 1992, ŵakawuskapo malango ghanandi ghakwendeskera mitengo ya vinthu, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti ndalama za Russia zichepe chomene. Kuchepa kwa ndalama mu boma la Russia, pamoza na kusazgikira kwa ndalama na kutondeka kuwezga ngongoli, ndivyo vikapangiska suzgo la ndalama mu Russia mu 1998.[53][lower-alpha 4]
Movement towards a modernized economy, political centralization and democratic backsliding
Pa Disembala 31, 1999, pulezidenti Yeltsin wakafumapo mwamabuchi, ndipo wakalekera ntchito iyo nduna yikuru iyo yikaŵa kuti yasankhika waka, Vladimir Putin. Pamanyuma pake, Putin wakathereska ŵanthu ŵa ku Chechnya mu nkhondo yaciŵiri ya ku Chechnya.
Mu 2004, Putin wakathereskeka. Chifukwa cha kukwera kwa mtengo wa mafuta na kukwera kwa ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake ŵakugwiliskira ntchito, chuma cha Russia chikamba kwenda makora kweniso ŵanthu ŵakamba kukhala makora. Muwuso wa Putin ukakhozga mtende, uku uku Russia wazgoka boma lakugaluka. Mu 2008, Putin wakamba kuŵa nduna yikuru, apo Dmitry Medvedev wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti kwa nyengo yimoza, kuti walutilire kuŵa na mazaza nangauli nyengo yake yikaŵa yakukwana yayi.[54]
Nkhondo ya Russia na Georgia yikacitika pa 1 na 12 Ogasiti, 2008, pamanyuma pa suzgo ya ndyali na Georgia. Iyi yikaŵa nkhondo yakwamba ya ku Europe ya m'ma 2000.[55]
Invasion of Ukraine
Kuuyambiro wa chaka cha 2014, Russia yikapoka charu cha Crimea kufuma ku Ukraine. Mu suzgo yikuru ya nkhondo, Russia yikamba nkhondo ya ku Ukraine pa 24 February 2022.[56] Nkhondo iyi ndiyo yikaŵa yikuru comene mu Europe kufuma apo Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yikambira, ndipo yikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakasuskanga. Pa cifukwa ici, Russia wakafumiskika mu wupu wa Council of Europe mu Malichi, ndipo wakasoleka mu wupu wa United Nations Human Rights Council mu Epulero. Mu Seputembala, pamanyuma pa nkhondo zakutonda za ku Ukraine, Putin wakapharazga za "kuwungana kwa vigaŵa", kuwungana kwa Russia kakwamba kufuma apo Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yikambira. Kuumaliro wa Seputembala, Putin wakapharazga kuti vigaŵa vinayi vya Ukraine vyatoleka na boma la Russia. Putin na ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Russia ŵakasazgapo phangano lakuti ŵanjire mu caru ca Russia, ilo caru cose cikumanya yayi ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuliwona kuti ndakuswa malango. Pa maparamende ghanandi gha pa caru cose na gha pa caru cose, pakaŵa fundo izo zikati Russia ni boma ilo likuwovwira vigeŵenga. Kweniso, Latvia, Lithuania, na Estonia ŵati Russia ni boma la vigeŵenga. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya kuti ŵakafwa cifukwa ca nkhondo iyi. Nkhondo ya ku Ukraine yasazgirako suzgo la ŵanthu ku Russia.[57]
Makhalilo gha charu
Charu cha Russia chili kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Europe na kumpoto kwa Asia. Chigaŵa ichi chili kumpoto chomene kwa charu cha Eurasia. Charu cha Russia chili pakati pa latitude 41° na 82° N, na longitude 19° E na 169° W, ndipo chili na mtunda wa makilomita pafupifupi 9,000 (5,600 mi) kufuma kumafumiro gha dazi kuya kumanjiliro gha dazi, na makilomita 2,500 mpaka 4,000 (1,600 mpaka 2,500 mi) kufuma kumpoto kuya kumwera. Ku Russia, charu ichi chili na vigaŵa vikuruvikuru kuluska vyaru vitatu.[58][59][lower-alpha 5][lower-alpha 6]
Russia yili na mapiri ghakuru ghankhondi na ghatatu, ndipo ghakusangika mu vigaŵa vya kumwera chomene, uko kuli mapiri ghanandi gha Caucasus (uko kuli Phiri la Elbrus, ilo lili pa mtunda wa mamita 5,642 (18,510 ft) ndilo ni phiri likuru chomene mu Russia na Europe); Mapiri gha Altai na Sayan mu Siberia; na mu mapiri gha East Siberia na Kamchatka Peninsula mu Russian Far East (uko kuli Klyuchevskaya Sopka, ilo lili pa mtunda wa mamita 4,750 (15,584 ft) ndilo phiri likuru chomene mu Eurasia). Mapiri gha Ural, agho ghali kumpoto na kumwera kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu ichi, ghali na vinthu vinandi vyakuthupi. Malo ghapasi chomene mu Russia na Europe, ghali ku mphepete mwa Nyanja ya Caspian, uko maji gha mu Nyanja ya Caspian ghakukwera mamita 29.
Russia njimoza mwa vyaru vitatu ivyo vili na nyanja zitatu. Virwa vikuruvikuru vya charu ichi ni Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land, Severnaya Zemlya, New Siberian Islands, Wrangel Island, Kuril Islands (vigaŵa vinayi ivyo vikususkana na Japan), na Sakhalin. Virwa vya Diomede, ivyo vili pasi pa boma la Russia na United States, vili pa mtunda wa makilomita 3.8 pera kufuma pa chirwa ichi. Ndipo chirwa cha Kunashir chili pa mtunda wa makilomita 20 pera kufuma ku Hokkaido, Japan.[2][lower-alpha 7]
Ku Russia kuli milonga yakujumpha 100,000, ndipo kuli maji ghanandi chomene pa charu. Nyanja ya Baikal, iyo njakukhora comene pa nyanja zose za ku Russia, njakunyang'amira comene, njakutowa comene, yakale comene, ndiposo njakutowa comene. Nyanja ya Ladoga na ya Onega, izo zili kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Russia, ni zinandi comene mu Europe. Ku Russia, maji ghose agho ghakusangika ku malo ghakusangikako ghakusangika waka ku Brazil. Mlonga wa Volga uwo uli kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Russia, ndiwo ni mlonga utali chomene mu Europe. Mlonga wa Ob, Yenisey, Lena, na Amur, uwo uli mu Siberia, ngumoza mwa milonga yitali comene pa caru.[61]
Nyengo
Chifukwa cha ukuru wa caru ca Russia ndiposo cifukwa cakuti vigaŵa vinandi vya caru ici vili kutali comene na nyanja, mu caru ici muli nyengo yakuzizima, kweni mu vigaŵa vinandi vya caru ici muli vyakumera vyambura maji. Mapiri agho ghali kumwera na kumafumiro gha dazi ghakovwira kuti mphepo yakufuma ku nyanja za Indian na Pacific yileke kwiza, apo mapiri gha ku Europe agho ghali kumanjiliro gha dazi na kumpoto ghakovwira kuti mphepo izo zikufuma ku nyanja za Atlantic na Arctic zileke kwiza. Chigaŵa chikuru cha kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Russia na Siberia chili na mphepo ya subarctic, ndipo mu vigaŵa vya kumpoto cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Siberia muli nyengo yakuzizima chomene. Mphepete mwa nyanja ya Arctic na pa virwa vya ku Russia, pali mphepo yakuzizima.
Chigaŵa cha mumphepete mwa nyanja cha Krasnodar Krai pa Nyanja Yiswesi, chomenechomene Sochi, na vigaŵa vinyake vya mumphepete mwa nyanja na vya mukati mwa North Caucasus, vili na mphepo yakuzizima chomene. Mu vigaŵa vinandi vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Siberia na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Russia, nyengo ya chiwuvi njakomira chomene pakuyaniska na nyengo ya chihanya. Mu nyengo ya chiwuvi, mu vigaŵa vinandi vya charu ichi, vula yikuwa nga ni chiwuvi. Chigaŵa chakumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Kaliningrad Oblast na vigaŵa vinyake kumwera kwa Krasnodar Krai na North Caucasus vili na mphepo ya nyanja. Malo agha ghali mumphepete mwa Lower Volga na Caspian Sea, kweniso mu vigaŵa vinyake vya kumwera kwa Siberia.
Mu vigaŵa vinandi vya caru ici, pali nyengo ziŵiri pera, nyengo ya cihanya na ya cihanya. Mwezi wakuzizima comene ni Janyuwale (February pa mumphepete mwa nyanja). Nyengo zinyake matenthedwe ghakupambanapambana. Mu nyengo yakuzizima, kuzizima kukukulirakulira kufuma kumwera kuya kumpoto ndiposo kufuma kumanjiliro gha dazi kuya kumafumiro gha dazi. Nyengo ya chihanya yikuŵa yakotcha comene, nanga nkhu Siberia. Kusintha kwa mphepo ku Russia kukupangiska kuti moto wa mu nkhorongo ulokenge kanandi waka, kweniso kuti charu ichi chiŵe na chiwuvi chikuru.[62]
Biodiversity
Chifukwa cha ukuru wake, caru ca Russia cili na vyakumera vyakupambanapambana. Vinyake mwa vyakumera ivi ni mapopa gha ku mpoto, vyakumera vya tundra, vyakumera vya tundra, vyakumera vya taiga, vyakumera vya makuni ghakupambanapambana, vyakumera vya makuni, vyakumera vya makuni, vyakumera vya mu mapopa, vyakumera vya mu mapopa, na vyakumera vya mu vigaŵa vyakumwera. Pa caru cose ca Russia, hafu ya caru ici yili na makuni, ndipo ni malo ghakurughakuru comene pa caru cose gha makuni, agho ghakukanizga mphepo ya carbon dioxide.[64][65]
Mu vyakumera vya ku Russia muli vyakumera vyakupambanapambana 12,500, vyakumera vyakupambanapambana 2,200, vyakumera vyakupambanapambana 3,000, vyakumera vyakupambanapambana 7,000, na vyakumera vyakupambanapambana 20,000, 25,000. Vinyama vya ku Russia vili na vyamoyo vyakukwana 320, viyuni vyakukwana 732, vyamoyo vyakukhala pasi vyakukwana 75, vyamoyo vyakukhala pasi na pasi vyakukwana 30, somba za mu maji ghawemi vyakukwana 343, somba za mu maji gha mchere vyakukwana 1,500, vyamoyo vyakukwana 9 na vyamoyo vyambura msana vyakukwana 100,000 na 150,000. Vinyama na vyakumera vyakujumpha 1,100 ivyo ni vichoko chomene na ivyo vili pangozi ya kumara vili kulembeka mu buku la Russian Red Data Book.
Vinthu vyose vyakuthupi vya ku Russia vili mu malo pafupifupi 15,000 agho ghali na malo ghakupambanapambana ghakuvikilirika. Vinyake mwa vyaru ivi ni vyaru 45 ivyo vili na vyamoyo vyakupambanapambana, vyaru 64 ivyo vili na vyakumera vyakupambanapambana, na vyaru 101 ivyo vili na vyakumera vyakupambanapambana. Nangauli charu ichi chikulutilira kunangika, kweni viyuni vinandi vichalipo, chomenechomene ku chigaŵa cha kumpoto kwa charu cha Siberia. Russia wakaŵa na chiŵelengero cha 9.02 mu 2019, ndipo wakaŵa wa nambara 10 pa vyaru 172.[66]
Boma na ndale
Mu 1993, boma la Russia likaŵa na fundo yakuti boma la Russia likwenera kuŵa na pulezidenti yumoza. Boma ili lili na vigaŵa vitatu:[67]
- Wupu Wakulongozga: Wupu Wakulongozga wa Russia, uwo uli na ŵanthu 450 ndipo uli na ŵanthu 170, ndiwo ukukhazikiska malango gha boma, kupharazga nkhondo, kukolerana na vyaru vinyake, ndipo uli na mazaza ghakulongozga ndalama za boma na kukaka pulezidenti.[68]
- Muwuso: Pulezidenti ndiyo ni mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa Russia, ndipo wakwimika boma la Russia (Cabinet) na ŵantchito ŵanyake, awo ŵakwendeska na kufiska malango gha boma. Pulezidenti wangapeleka vyeruzgo vyambura mphaka, kweni vikususkana yayi na dango la boma.[69]
- Ŵeruzgi: Khoti Likuru Chomene, Khoti Likuru Chomene, na makhoti ghachokoghachoko, agho ŵeruzgi ŵawo ŵakwimikika na Wupu wa Federation pa ulongozgi wa pulezidenti, ŵakung'anamura malango ndipo ŵangawuskapo malango agho ŵakughanaghana kuti ngakususkana na dango. Mulara wa boma wakusankhika na ŵanthu wose kuti waŵe na vyaka vinkhondi na cimoza. Maofesi gha boma ghakukhala na nduna yikuru na ŵantchito ŵake, nduna, na ŵanthu ŵanyake; wose ŵakwimikika na pulezidenti pa ulongozgi wa nduna yikuru (pakuwona kuti kwimika nduna iyi kukukhumba kuzomerezgeka na boma la Duma). United Russia ni chipani cha ndyali icho chili na mazaza chomene mu Russia, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakuti ni "chipani cha nkhongono". Mu muwuso wa Vladimir Putin, caru ca Russia caweleramo ku demokilase, ndipo cazgoka boma la wupu wakulongozga pasi pa muwuso wa wupu wa Putin.[70][lower-alpha 8][72][10]
Political divisions
Mu 1993, boma la Russia likaŵa na malango ghakwendera lumoza. Mwakupambana na umo vinthu vikaŵira mu R.S.F.S.R., apo vyaru vikaŵa waka "vinthu vya mu wupu", dango ili likawovwira kuti vigaŵa vinyake viŵe nga ni vyaru vinyake. Vyaru vya Russia vili na vigaŵa ivyo vili na mazaza ghake, kweni palije vigaŵa ivyo vili na mazaza ghake, vilije mazaza gha boma, vilije wanangwa wa kulongora mazaza ghake mu malango ghawo, ndipo vilije wanangwa wa kujipatura ku caru. Malango gha vigaŵa ghangatimbanizga yayi malango gha boma.
Vyaru vyose vya ku Germany vili na ŵimiliri ŵaŵiri mu wupu wa Federation Council, uwo ni wupu wa ŵalara ŵa boma. Kweni ŵakupambana pa umo ŵakuchitira vinthu. Mu 2000, Putin wakambiska maboma gha Russia kuti ghaŵe na mazaza pa ŵanthu awo ŵakulongozgeka na boma. Pakwamba kukaŵa vigaŵa vinkhondi na viŵiri, kweni sono kuli vigaŵa vinkhondi na viŵiri, ndipo chigaŵa chilichose chili na nthumi yake.[73][lower-alpha 9]
| Federal subjects | Governance |
|---|---|
| ██ 46 oblasts | The most common type of federal subject with a governor and locally elected legislature. Commonly named after their administrative centres.[74] |
| ██ 22 republics | Each is nominally autonomous—home to a specific ethnic minority, and has its own constitution, language, and legislature, but is represented by the federal government in international affairs.[75] |
| ██ 9 krais | For all intents and purposes, krais are legally identical to oblasts. The title "krai" ("frontier" or "territory") is historic, related to geographic (frontier) position in a certain period of history. The current krais are not related to frontiers.[76] |
| ██ 4 autonomous okrugs | Occasionally referred to as "autonomous district", "autonomous area", and "autonomous region", each with a substantial or predominant ethnic minority.[77] |
| ██ 3 federal cities | Major cities that function as separate regions (Moscow and Saint Petersburg, as well as Sevastopol in Russian-occupied Ukraine).[78] |
| ██ 1 autonomous oblast | The only autonomous oblast is the Jewish Autonomous Oblast.[79] |
Foreign relations
Mu 2019, caru ca Russia cikaŵa pa nambara 5 pa vyaru ivyo vili na ŵasilikari ŵanandi. Likukolerana na vyaru 190 ivyo vili mu wupu wa United Nations, vyaru vinayi ivyo vili na wupu uwu, na vyaru vitatu ivyo vili na wupu uwu. Russia njimoza mwa vyaru vinkhondi ivyo vili mu wupu wa United Nations Security Council. Kwamba kale, caru ici nchankhongono comene, ndipo nchakumanyikwa comene pakuŵa cigaŵa cikuru ca Soviet Union. Russia njumoza wa vyaru vya G20, OSCE, na APEC. Russia nayo wakulongozga mu mawupu nga ni CIS, EAEU, CSTO, SCO, na BRICS.
Russia wali na ubwezi wakukhora na vyaru viŵiri ivi. Kwamba kale, Serbia ni muwukirano wa Russia, cifukwa vyaru viŵiri ivi vikukolerana comene pa nkhani ya mitheto, mafuko, na visopa. India ndiyo wakuguliska comene vya nkhondo ku Russia, ndipo vyaru viŵiri ivi vili na ubwezi wakukhora wa vyaru vyakupambanapambana kwambira mu nyengo ya Soviet Union. Russia wali na mazaza pa vyaru vyakuzirwa nga ni South Caucasus na Central Asia.[80][81]
Countries on Russia's "Unfriendly Countries List". The list includes countries that have imposed sanctions against Russia for its invasion of Ukraine.
Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, Russia wakulondezga fundo zakususkana na vyaru vinyake kuti wasange mazaza pa charu chose kweniso kuti wawovwire boma lake. Kuwukira ŵasilikari mu vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa Soviet Union, ni nkhondo na Georgia mu 2008, kweniso kuwukira Ukraine na kutimbanizga mtende mu 2014. Russia nayo wakukhumba kusazgirako nkhongono zake ku Middle East, comenecomene kwizira mu nkhondo ya ku Syria. Nkhondo za pa Intaneti na kunanga malo gha mu mlengalenga, pamoza na kunjilirapo pa mavoti, vyawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵawonenge kuti Russia ngwankhongono. Ubwezi wa Russia na Ukraine na vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi, chomenechomene United States, European Union, United Nations na NATO, watimbanizgika; comenecomene pamanyuma pa nkhondo ya Russia na Ukraine mu 2014 na kunjira mu suzgo mu 2022. Ubwezi pakati pa Russia na China wakukhozga comene pa vigaŵa viŵiri ndiposo vya cuma cifukwa ca ivyo ŵanthu wose ŵakutemwa. Turkey na Russia ŵakukolerana comene pa nkhani ya ndyali, nkhongono, na kuvikilira caru. Russia wali na ubwezi uwemi na Iran, cifukwa ni mubwezi wake wa ndyali ndiposo wa vya cuma. Kweniso Russia wakulimbikira kuti wasanuzge mazaza ghake mu vyaru vya ku Arctic, Asia-Pacific, Africa, Middle East, na Latin America. Kuyana na lipoti la Economist Intelligence Unit, ŵanthu ŵaŵiri pa ŵanthu ŵatatu ŵaliwose pa caru capasi ŵakukhala mu vyaru nga ni China na India ivyo ni vyakutemwera yayi nkhondo panji ivyo vikutemwa Russia.[82]
Ŵankhondo
Ŵasilikari ŵa Russia ŵali kugaŵika mu magulu ghaŵiri: ŵasilikari ŵa pa mtunda, ŵasilikari ŵa mu nyanja, na ŵasilikari ŵa mu mlengalenga. Kufika mu 2021, ŵasilikari ŵali na ŵasilikari pafupifupi 1 miliyoni, ndipo ŵali na ŵasilikari ŵakujumpha 2 miliyoni.[84][85] Ŵanalume wose ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 18 na 27 ŵakwenera kunjira usilikari.[9]
Boma la Russia ndilo lili na vilwero vya nyukiliya vinandi chomene kuluska vyaru vinyake. Russia ni yimoza mwa vyaru vitatu ivyo vili na sitima za pasi pa nyanja za balistic missile. Boma la Russia ndilo lili na ndalama zinandi chomene pa charu chose pa nkhani ya vya nkhondo, ndipo likagwiliskira ntchito madola 86.4 biliyoni mu 2022, panji kuti 4.1% ya GDP. Mu 2021, yikaŵa yikuluta yaciŵiri pa caru cose pakuguliska vilwero, ndipo yikaŵa na makampani ghakurughakuru gha kuvikilira caru, ndipo yikapanganga vilwero vinandi vya nkhondo.[86]
Wanangwa wa ŵanthu na vimbundi
Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakususka ivyo boma la Russia likuchita pa nkhani ya wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Mwaciyerezgero, wupu wa Amnesty International na wa Human Rights Watch ŵakuti Russia ni caru ca demokilase yayi ndipo ŵanthu ŵake ŵalije wanangwa wa ndyali panji wanangwa wa kucita vinthu vinyake.[88][89]
Kwambira mu 2004, wupu wa Freedom House, ukuwona kuti caru ca Russia nchambura wanangwa. Kwambira mu 2011, bungwe la Economist Intelligence Unit likuwona kuti charu cha Russia ni "chipani cha ŵanthu ŵankhongono" ndipo mu 2022 chiŵenge pa malo 146. Pa nkhani ya wanangwa wa vyalo, Russia wali pa malo gha 155 pa vyalo 180 mu lipoti la Reporters Without Borders Press Freedom Index la 2022. Boma la Russia lakususkika comene na ŵanthu awo ŵakususka ndyali na awo ŵakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu cifukwa ca maungano ghambura urunji, kukanizga magulu gha visopa na viyezgelero, kutambuzga mawupu ghambura vya boma, kukanizga na kukoma ŵapharazgi ŵakujiyimira paŵekha, na kukanizga ŵanthu kuti ŵamanye vinandi pa nkhani ya vya boma.
Ndyali za ku Russia zikuchemeka kleptocracy, oligarchy, na plutocracy. Charu ichi ndicho chikaŵa pasi chomene pa vyaru vyose vya ku Europe pa ndondomeko ya Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index ya chaka cha 2021. Ku Russia, vimbundi vyazara comene, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakuwona kuti ni suzgo likuru. Likukhwaska vigaŵa vinandi, nga ni vya vyachuma, bizinesi, boma, malango, vyakusungilira umoyo, masambiro, na ŵasilikari.
Ŵasilamu, comenecomene ŵa Salafi, ŵakutambuzgika mu Russia. Kuti ŵamazge viwawa ivyo vikucitika ku North Caucasus, ŵamazaza ŵa ku Russia ŵakususkika kuti ŵakukoma ŵanthu, kuŵakaka, kuŵachimbizga, na kuŵatambuzga. Ku Dagestan, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa mu gulu la Salafi ŵakusuzgika na boma cifukwa ca kawonekero kawo. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Chechnya na Ingush awo ŵali mu majele gha ku Russia ndiwo ŵakusuzgika chomene kuluska ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake. Pa nyengo ya nkhondo ya ku Ukraine mu 2022, Russia wakhazikiska misasa ya ŵanthu awo ŵakusuzgika ndipo ŵakutumika ku Russia. Misasa iyi yikayaniskika na iyo ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito pa nkhondo za ku Chechnya.[90][91]
Dango na upusikizgi
Dango lakwamba na lakuzirwa chomene mu Russia ni Dango la Wupu Wakulongozga. Malango, nga ni Russian Civil Code na Russian Criminal Code, ndigho ghakovwira chomene pa malango gha Russia.[92][93][94]
Russia ni caru caciŵiri pa caru cose ico cikuguliska vilwero mwambura kuzomerezgeka, pamanyuma pa United States.[95][96][97]
Chuma
Boma la Russia lili na chuma cha msika, ndipo lili na vinthu vinandi chomene, chomenechomene mafuta na gasi.[99] Charu ichi chili na cuma cikuru comene cacinkhondi na cinayi pa caru cose pa nkhani ya GDP, ndipo nchicinkhondi na cimoza pa vyaru vyose pa nkhani ya malonda. Vigaŵa vikuruvikuru vya uteŵeti vikupanga 62% vya GDP yose, ivi vikulondezgana na vigaŵa vya vyamaseŵera (32%), apo vigaŵa vya vyakurya ni vichoko chomene, ndipo vikupanga 5% pera vya GDP yose. Ku Russia, ŵanthu awo ŵakutondeka kugwira nchito mbacoko comene. Vinthu ivyo charu ichi chikusunga ni vyacinkhondi pa vyaru vyose pa caru, ndipo vili na ndalama zakukwana madola 540 biliyoni. Mu caru ici muli ŵanthu pafupifupi 70 miliyoni, ndipo ni caru ca nambara sikisi pa vyaru ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵanandi.
Russia ni caru ca nambara 13 pa vyaru ivyo vikuguliska vyakurya ku vyaru vinyake ndipo ni caru ca nambara 21 pa vyaru ivyo vikuguliska vyakurya ku vyaru vinyake.[100][101] Boma la Russia likuthemba chomene pa ndalama izo likusanga kufuma ku misonkho ya mafuta na gasi kweniso misonkho ya vyakurya ivyo vikupanga vyakurya vinyake. Russia ni yimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vili na ngongoli yichoko chomene pa vyaru vikuruvikuru, nangauli ni vyaru vyakupambanapambana ivyo vili na ndalama zinandi. Kweniso pali mphambano yikuru pakati pa vigaŵa.
Pamanyuma pa virimika vyakujumpha 10 vya kukura kwa cuma mu nyengo ya Soviet Union, kwakovwirika na mtengo wa mafuta ndiposo kukwera kwa ndalama zakwendakwenda, cuma ca Russia cikapwetekeka cifukwa ca nkhondo ya Russia na Ukraine na kunjizga Crimea mu 2014. Pamanyuma pa nkhondo ya Russia ya ku Ukraine mu 2022, chalo ichi chikakumana na viyezgo vikuru na vyakuti mabungwe gha vyamalonda ghalekerethu kugwiliskira nchito ndalama zawo, ndipo chikazgoka chalo ico ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakucicizga pa caru cose. Chifukwa cha suzgo ili, boma la Russia laleka kufumiska vinthu vinandi vya vyachuma kufuma mu Epulero 2022. Ogwira ntchito zachuma akunena kuti zilangozi zidzakhudza kwambiri chuma cha Russia.[102]
Transport and energy
Mu Russia, njanji zikwendeskeka na boma la Russia. Mtunda wose wa njanji izo zikugwiliskirika nchito ni mtunda wacitatu pa mtunda wose pa caru, ndipo ukujumpha makilomita 87,000.[104] Mu 2016, Russia wakaŵa wa nambara 5 pa vyaru ivyo vili na misewu yinandi chomene. Misewu ya maji ya ku Russia ndiyo yitali chomene pa charu chose. Pa ma eyapoti 1,218 gha ku Russia, agho ghali na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene ni Sheremetyevo International Airport ku Moscow. Doko likuru comene mu Russia ni Novorossiysk Port mu Krasnodar Krai mumphepete mwa Nyanja Yiswesi.
Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakatenge Russia ni boma la nkhongono chomene pa nkhani ya magesi. Charu ichi chili na mafuta ghanandi chomene pa charu chose chapasi, ndipo chili pa nambara 8 pa vyaru ivyo vili na mafuta ghanandi chomene. Kweniso charu cha Russia ndicho chikupanga mafuta ghanandi chomene pa charu chose. Kupanga mafuta na gasi mu Russia kukapangiska kuti paŵe ubwezi wakukhora na vyaru vya ku Europe, China, na vyaru vinyake ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa Soviet Union.[105][106] Mwachiyelezgero, mu vyaka 10 ivyo vyajumpha, chiŵelengero cha Russia icho chikupeleka mafuta ku vyaru vyose vya ku Europe (mwakusazgapo United Kingdom) chikakwera kufuma pa 25% mu 2009 kufika pa 32% mu masabata ghakwambilira pambere charu cha Russia chindanjire mu Ukraine mu Febuluwale 2022.
Mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000, chiŵelengero cha mafuta na gasi mu GDP chikaŵa pafupifupi 20%, ndipo mu 2013 chikaŵa 20~21% ya GDP. Malire gha mafuta na gasi mu vyakurya vya ku Russia (pafupifupi 50%) na ndalama za boma (pafupifupi 50%) ni ghanandi, ndipo GDP ya Russia yikuthemba pa mtengo wa mafuta na gasi, kweni ndalama izo zili mu GDP ni zicoko comene kuluska 50%. Kuyana na kafukufuku wakudumura wakudumura uyu uyo wakalembeka na wupu wa Russian Statistics Agency Rosstat mu 2021, chiŵelengero cha mafuta na gasi mu GDP ya Russia, kusazgapo kunozga mafuta na gasi, kwendeska, kuguliska mafuta na gasi, vinthu vyose ivyo vikugwiliskirika nchito, na milimo yose yakovwira, ni 19.2% mu 2019 na 15.2% mu 2020. Ivi vikuyana waka na GDP ya Norway na Kazakhstan. Ni pacoko comene kuluska GDP ya ku Saudi Arabia na United Arab Emirates.[107][108][109][110][111]
Russia yikazomera phangano la Paris mu 2019. Ku Russia ndiko kuli na vyakumera vinandi comene kuluska vyakumera vinyake vyose pa caru. Russia ni caru cacinayi pa caru cose ico cikupanga magesi. Kweniso ni caru cakwamba pa caru cose kupanga nkhongono za nyukiliya, na kuzenga sitima yakwamba ya nyukiliya. Mu 2019, Russia ndiyo yikaŵa na nkhongono zinandi chomene pa charu chose pa nkhani ya nyukiliya.[112]
Agriculture and fishery
Vyaru vya Russia vikupanga pafupifupi 5% ya GDP ya caru ici, nangauli vikugwirapo nchito pafupifupi cigaŵa cimoza pa vigaŵa vinkhondi na cimoza vya ŵanthu wose awo ŵakugwira nchito. Charu ichi chili na malo ghakurughakuru ghachitatu pa charu chose, ghakukwana 1,265,267 sq. km. Ndipouli, cifukwa ca umo caru ici ciliri, pafupifupi 13.1% ya caru ici ni vyakurya, ndipo 7.4% pera ni vyakurya. Malo gha vyakurya gha mu caru ici ghakumanyikwa kuti ni malo gha ku Europe. Malo ghakujumpha hafu gha malo agha ghakupambika vyakurya vya viŵeto. Vipambi vikuru comene mu vyaru vya Russia ni vyakurya vya tirigu, ivyo vikukwana pafupifupi hafu ya malo gha vyakurya. Russia ni caru ico cikuguliska tirigu comene pa caru cose, ndipo ndico cikuguliska balere na buckwheat comene.[113][114][115]
Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakumanya umo vyakumera vingasinthira na kusintha kwa nyengo ŵakuwona kuti mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000 vyakurya vya ku Russia vizamusambazgika chomene. Chifukwa cha mumphepete mwa nyanja zikuruzikuru zitatu na nyanja 12 izo zili mumphepete mwa nyanja, charu cha Russia chili pa nambara 6 pa vyakumera vikuruvikuru pa charu chose chapasi. Mu chaka cha 2018, ŵanthu pafupifupi 5 miliyoni ŵakakora somba. Mu charu ichi ndimo mukusangika somba ziwemi chomene za beluga.[116]
Science and technology
Boma la Russia likagwiliskira nchito pafupifupi 1% ya GDP yake pa kafukufuku mu 2019, ndipo ndilo lili na ndalama zinandi comene pa caru cose. Kweniso yikaŵa ya nambara 10 pa charu chose pa nkhani ya mabuku gha sayansi agho ghakalembeka mu 2020. Kwambira mu 1904, ŵanthu 26 ŵa ku Soviet Union na Russia ŵali kupokera chawanangwa cha Nobel mu vyaru vya physics, chemistry, medicine, economics, literature na peace. Russia ili pa malo 45 pa Global Innovation Index mu 2021.[117]
Kufuma waka mu nyengo ya Nikolay Lobachevsky, uyo wakambiska masamu agho ghakusambizga vya Euclid yayi, na Pafnuty Chebyshev, uyo wakaŵa msambizgi wakumanyikwa chomene, ŵasayansi ŵa masamu ŵa ku Russia ndiwo ŵakaŵa na mazaza chomene pa charu chose. Dmitry Mendeleev ndiyo wakambiska sayansi ya vinthu vyamunthazi. Ŵasayansi 9 ŵa ku Russia na Soviet ŵali kupokera chawanangwa ichi. Mu 2002, Grigori Perelman wakapokera chawanangwa chakuchemeka Clay Millennium Prize Problems Award chifukwa cha ukaboni wake waumaliro wa fundo ya Poincaré, kweniso Fields Medal mu 2006.[118]
Alexander Popov wakaŵa yumoza wa awo ŵakapanga wayilesi, ndipo Nikolai Basov na Alexander Prokhorov ndiwo ŵakapanga laser na maser. Oleg Losev wakacita vinandi comene pa nkhani ya kudumura vinthu mu viŵiya, ndipo wakabowozga viŵiya vyakufumiska ungweru. Vladimir Vernadsky wakuwoneka kuti ndiyo wakambiska sayansi ya geochemistry, biogeochemistry, na radiogeology. Eli Metchnikoff wakumanyikwa na kafukufuku wake wakukhwaskana na munkhwala wakuvikilira thupi. Ivan Pavlov wakumanyikwa comene cifukwa ca mulimo wake wa kusambizga ŵanthu kuti ŵaŵe na maghanoghano ghakwenelera. Lev Landau wakawovwira chomene pa nkhani ya sayansi.
Nikolai Vavilov wakumanyikwa comene cifukwa ca kumanya malo agho vyakumera vikupangikira. Trofim Lysenko wakamanyikwanga comene cifukwa ca cisopa ca Lysenko. Ŵasayansi na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakumanyikwa ŵa ku Russia ŵakafuma ku vyaru vinyake. Igor Sikorsky wakaŵa mupayiniya wa vya ndege. Vladimir Zworykin ndiyo wakapanga makina gha pa TV ghakucemeka iconoscope na kinescope. Theodosius Dobzhansky wakaŵa munthu wakuzirwa chomene pa nkhani ya umo vinthu vikalengekera. George Gamow wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵanthu awo ŵakasambizganga fundo yakuti vinthu vikachita kuphulika kufuma ku chinthu chinyake.[119]
Space exploration
Roscosmos ni wupu wakuwona vya mlengalenga wa Russia. Ivyo charu cha Russia chafiska pa nkhani ya sayansi ya mlengalenga vikamba na Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, uyo wakaŵa wiske wa sayansi ya mlengalenga.
Mu 1957, Satellite yakwamba ya Sputnik 1 yikaponyeka kucanya. Mu 1961, Yuri Gagarin ndiyo wakaluta mu mlengalenga kakwamba. Pakajumpha nyengo yitali kufuma apo ku Russia na ku Soviet Union kukaŵaso ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakasanda mlengalenga. Mu 1963, Valentina Tereshkova wakaŵa mwanakazi wakwamba kweniso muchoko comene kuluta mu mlengalenga. Mu 1965, Alexei Leonov wakaŵa munthu wakwamba kwenda mu mlengalenga.
Mu 1957, Laika, ntcheŵe yakufuma ku Soviet, ndiyo yikaŵa nyama yakwamba kuzingilira caru capasi. Mu 1966, ndege ya Luna 9 ndiyo yikaŵa yakwamba kufika pa mwezi. Mu 1968, Zond 5 yikawovwira ŵanthu ŵaŵiri ŵa pa charu chapasi kuti ŵende kuzingilira mwezi. Mu 1970, Venera 7 ndiyo yikaŵa ndege yakwamba kukhira pa caru cinyake, Venus. Mu 1971, Mars 3 yikaŵa ndege yakwamba kukwera pa Mars.:34 ¢60 Mu nyengo yeneyiyo, Lunokhod 1 yikaŵa ndege yakwamba kukwera mu mlengalenga, ndipo Salyut 1 yikaŵa sitima yakwamba ya mlengalenga. Mu Epulero 2022, caru ca Russia cikaŵa na mapulaneti 172 mu mlengalenga.[120]
Tourism
Kuyana na wupu wa World Tourism Organization, charu cha Russia chili pa nambara 16 pa vyaru ivyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuluta ku malo agha. Wupu wakuwona vya maulendo ku Russia (Federal Agency for Tourism) ukati mu 2019, ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake ŵakaluta ku Russia maulendo ghakukwana 24.4 miliyoni. Mu 2018, ndalama izo charu cha Russia chikapokera kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵakwendakwenda zikakwana madola 11.6 biliyoni. Mu chaka cha 2019, maulendo na vyakukopa ŵanthu vikaŵa pafupifupi 4.8% ya GDP ya charu chose.[121]
Ŵalendo ŵanandi ŵakuluta ku malo ghakupambanapambana ku Russia. Ŵalendo aŵa ŵakwenda mu malo ghakuchemeka Golden Ring of Russia. Vinyake mwa malo agho ŵanthu ŵakutemwa kuluta ku Russia ni Red Square, Peterhof Palace, Kazan Kremlin, Trinity Lavra of St. Petersburg, na Moscow Cathedral. Sergius na Nyanja ya Baikal.
Moscow, msumba ukuru wa caru ici, ni msumba ukuru comene. Nyumba iyi yili na vyakuzengeka vya nyengo ya Soviet ndipo yili na vinthu vyakuzirwa nga ni vyakusanguluska, maseŵero gha ballet, na nyumba zikuruzikuru. Msumba wa St. Petersburg, uwo ni msumba ukuru wa Ufumu wa Russia, ukumanyikwa na vyakuzengeka, matchalitchi, nyumba zakusungiramo vinthu vyakale, mise yituŵa, milonga na migelo yinandi. Charu cha Russia ntchakumanyikwa pa charu chose chifukwa cha malo ghakusungirako vinthu vyakale nga ni State Russian, State Hermitage, na Tretyakov Gallery. Nyumba ya Moscow Kremlin na Cathedral ya St. Basil ni vinyake mwa vinthu vyakuzirwa comene mu Russia.[122]
Ŵanthu
Charu cha Russia chili na ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene pa charu chose ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhala mu misumba. Ŵanthu ŵakukwana 142.8 miliyoni kuyana na kalembera wa mu 2010, ndipo ŵakukwana 145.5 miliyoni mu 2022. Charu cha Russia ndicho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene ku Europe, ndipo chili pa nambara 9 pa vyaru vyose pa charu chapasi.[123]
Kwamba m'ma 1990, ciŵelengero ca ŵanthu awo ŵakufwa ku Russia cajumpha ca awo ŵakubabika. Mu 2019, chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakubabika mu Russia chikaŵa 1.5 pa mwanakazi waliyose, ndipo ichi ntchichoko chomene pakuyaniska na chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakubabika mu charu ichi. Ntheura, caru ici nchimoza mwa vyaru ivyo ŵanthu ŵake mbacekuru comene pa caru cose, ndipo ŵali na vilimika 40.3. Mu 2009, caru ici cikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi comene kwa nyengo yakwamba mu vilimika 15, ndipo pamanyuma pake ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kufwa cifukwa ca kuchepa kwa unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakufwa, kunjira mu caru cinyake cifukwa ca ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakubabika.[124]
Ndipouli, kwambira mu 2020, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ku Russia chawelerapo, chifukwa ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakufwa na nthenda ya COVID-19 yikapangiska kuti chiŵelengero chake chichepe chomene mu nyengo ya mtende. Pamanyuma pa nkhondo ya Russia ya ku Ukraine mu 2022, suzgo la ŵanthu mu chalo ichi likasazgikira comene, cifukwa boma ili likapwetekeka comene na ŵasilikari awo ŵakafwa.
Boma la Russia lili na vyaru vinandi ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵachoko waka. Mu caru cose ici muli mafuko ghakujumpha 193. Mu 2010, ŵanthu pafupifupi 81% ŵakaŵa ŵa fuko la Russia, ndipo 19% ŵakaŵa ŵa fuko linyake. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Russia ŵakaŵa ŵa fuko la Europe. Kuyana na wupu wa United Nations, caru ca Russia ndico cili na ŵanthu ŵanandi comene ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake, ndipo ŵalipo ŵakujumpha 11.6 miliyoni.[125]
| Mndandanda | Federal subject | Ŵanthu | Mndandanda | Federal subject | Ŵanthu | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Moscow  Saint Petersburg |
1 | Moscow | Moscow | 13,010,112 | 11 | Rostov-na-Donu | Rostov Oblast | 1,142,162 |  Novosibirsk  Yekaterinburg |
| 2 | Saint Petersburg | Saint Petersburg | 5,601,911 | 12 | Omsk | Omsk Oblast | 1,125,695 | ||
| 3 | Novosibirsk | Novosibirsk Oblast | 1,633,595 | 13 | Krasnodar | Krasnodar Krai | 1,099,344 | ||
| 4 | Yekaterinburg | Sverdlovsk Oblast | 1,544,376 | 14 | Voronezh | Voronezh Oblast | 1,057,681 | ||
| 5 | Kazan | Tatarstan | 1,308,660 | 15 | Perm | Perm Krai | 1,034,002 | ||
| 6 | Nizhny Novgorod | Nizhny Novgorod Oblast | 1,228,199 | 16 | Volgograd | Volgograd Oblast | 1,028,036 | ||
| 7 | Chelyabinsk | Chelyabinsk Oblast | 1,189,525 | 17 | Saratov | Saratov Oblast | 901,361 | ||
| 8 | Krasnoyarsk | Krasnoyarsk Krai | 1,187,771 | 18 | Tyumen | Tyumen Oblast | 847,488 | ||
| 9 | Samara | Samara Oblast | 1,173,299 | 19 | Tolyatti | Samara Oblast | 684,709 | ||
| 10 | Ufa | Bashkortostan | 1,144,809 | 20 | Barnaul | Altai Krai | 630,877 | ||
Viyowoyelo
Chiyowoyero cha ku Russia ndicho chikuyowoyeka chomene.[3] Chiyowoyero ichi ndicho chikuyowoyeka chomene ku Europe, kweniso ndicho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene ku Eurasia. Chiyowoyero cha Chirussia ndicho chikuyowoyeka pa malo ghakuchemeka International Space Station.
Russia ni charu icho ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vinandi.[128][129] Kuyana na kalembera uyo wakachitika mu 2010, ŵanthu 137.5 miliyoni ŵakayowoyanga Chirussia, 4.3 miliyoni ŵakayowoyanga Chitata, ndipo 1.1 miliyoni ŵakayowoyanga Chiukraine. Ndondomeko iyi yikupeleka wanangwa ku vigaŵa vya caru ici kuti viŵe na viyowoyero vyawo vya boma padera pa Cirasha, kweniso yikovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵasungilire ciyowoyero cawo na kupanga vinthu vyakukhumbikwa kuti ŵacisambire na kucikura. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti viyowoyero vinandi vya ku Russia vikumara chifukwa viyowoyero vinandi vili pangozi.[130][131]
Religion
Ku Russia kuli boma la ŵanthu ŵanandi yayi, ndipo cisopa cikuru comene ni Cikhristu ca Eastern Orthodox, ico cikumanyikwa comene na Tchalitchi la Russian Orthodox. Dango la Russia likuti cisopa ca Orthodox, pamoza na Cisilamu, Cibuda, na Cikhristu ca Ŵamitundu Yinyake (icho cilipo sono panji caŵasopo), ni visopa vya mu caru ici, ndipo ni vigaŵa vya "mbiri ya caru ici".[132][133]
Chisopa cha Chisilamu ndicho ntchikuru chomene pa visopa vyose mu Russia, ndipo ntchisopa cha ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku North Caucasus, kweniso ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Turkmenistan awo ŵakukhala ku chigaŵa cha Volga na Ural. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa chisopa cha Chibuda ŵakukhala mu vyaru vya Kalmykia, Buryatia, Zabaykalsky Krai, na Tuva. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Russia ŵakulondezga visopa vinyake, kusazgapo Rodnovery (Slavic Neopaganism), Assianism (Scythian Neopaganism), mitundu yinyake ya ŵanthu awo ŵakusopa ŵangoza, na visopa vinyake vya ŵanthu ŵangoza nga ni Ringing Cedars' Anastasianism, visopa vyakupambanapambana vya Chihindu, Siberian shamanism na Tengrism, visopa vyakupambanapambana vya Neo-Theosophical nga ni Roerichism, na visopa vinyake.[134][135] Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakusopa mu visopa vichokovichoko ŵakutambuzgika ndipo ŵanyake ŵakukanizgika mu charu ichi. Mu 2017, Ŵakaboni ŵa Yehova ŵakaŵakanizga mu Russia.
Mu 2012, wupu wakuwona vya chisopa wa Sreda, pamoza na Unduna wa vya Malango, ukafumiska buku la Arena Atlas, ilo likasazgako ku kalembera wa mu 2010, ilo likulongosora vya chisopa na mitundu ya ŵanthu mu Russia. Ivyo vikachitika vikalongora kuti ŵanthu 47.3% ŵa ku Russia ŵakajiphara kuti Mbakhristu, kusazgapo 41% ŵa tchalitchi la Orthodox, 1.5% ŵa Orthodox panji ŵa matchalitchi ghanyake, 4.1% ŵa Ŵakhristu ŵambura kukolerana na tchalitchi linyake, ndipo ŵambura kukolerana na tchalitchi la Orthodox, Ŵakatorika, panji Ŵaprotesitanti, ndipo ŵakakwana 1%.[136]
Masambilo
Ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Russia ŵakumanya kulemba na kuŵazga, ndipo sukulu iyi njakukakamiza kwa vyaka 11. Dango la caru ici likuti ŵanthu ŵasambirenge kwawanangwa.[138] Unduna wa vya masambiro ku Russia ndiwo ukupeleka masambiro gha ku pulayimale na gha ku sekondare, kweniso masambiro gha mauteŵeti. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa vigaŵa ŵakulongozga masambiro mu vigaŵa vyawo mwakuyana na malango gha boma. Russia ni yimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vili na masambiro ghapacanya comene pa caru cose, ndipo ni caru ca nambara 6 pa vyaru vyose ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵali kumalizga masambiro ghapacanya.[139] Mu 2018, charu ichi chikagwiliskira ntchito ndalama zakukwana 4.7% pa GDP yake pa masambiro.
Ŵana ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa vitatu na vinkhondi na cimoza mu caru ca Russia ŵakusambira mu masukulu gha ŵana ŵachoko. Ŵana ŵa vyaka 6 m'paka 7 ndiwo ŵakwenera kusambira sukulu ya pulayimale. Kuti munthu wafike ku sekondare wakwenera kusambira vyaka viŵiri panji vitatu, ndipo ŵanthu pafupifupi 7 pa ŵanthu 8 ŵa ku Russia ŵakulutilira kusambira sukulu iyi.
Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakunjira masukulu ghapachanya ndipo ŵakusanga mwaŵi wa kusambira. Maunivesite ghakale chomene na ghakuru chomene mu Russia ni Moscow State University na Saint Petersburg State University. Mu vyaru vyose ivi muli masukulu ghapachanya 10 gha boma. Russia ndiyo yikaŵa malo ghachinkhondi pa charu chose agho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasambirangako ku charu ichi mu 2019.[140]
Umoyo
Ku Russia, malango ghakwendeskera umoyo ghakupeleka wovwiri waulere ku ŵanthu wose ŵa mu charu ichi.[142] Unduna wa vya Umoyo wa Ŵanthu wa Russia ndiwo ukuwona vya umoyo wa ŵanthu, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 2 miliyoni ŵakugwira ntchito mu charu ichi. Vigaŵa vya boma navyo vili na maofesi gha vyaumoyo agho ghakuwona vya boma. Kuti munthu wasange wovwiri wa ku chipatala ku Russia wakwenera kuŵa na inshuwalansi yapadera.
Boma la Russia lagwiritsa ntchito 5.65% ya GDP yake pa zaumoyo mu 2019.[143] Ndalama izo charu ichi chikugwiliskira nchito pa vya cipatala ni zicoko comene pakuyaniska na za vyaru vinyake vyakutukuka. Chifukwa cha unandi wa ŵanalume awo ŵakufwa, caru ca Russia nchimoza mwa vyaru ivyo ŵanthu ŵakutemwa comene ŵanakazi. Mu 2019, umoyo wose wa ŵanthu ku Russia ukaŵa wa vyaka 73.2 (68.2 kwa ŵanalume na 78.0 kwa ŵanakazi).
Mu Russia, matenda gha mtima ndigho ghakwamba kufwa. Ku Russia, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakututuŵa chomene. Ndipouli, nangauli mu vyaka 10 ivyo vyajumpha ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumwa chomene moŵa ku Russia, kweni ni suzgo likuru chomene pa charu chose. Kukhweŵa hona ni suzgo linyake mu caru ici. Nangauli chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakujikoma chikukhira, kweni ni suzgo likuru chomene.[144]
Mwambo
Ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia ŵakulondezga mitheto yawo chifukwa cha mbiri ya charu ichi, malo agho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi, chisopa na mitheto ya ŵanthu, kweniso vinthu vya ku Western.[145] Awo ŵakulemba mabuku na ŵavinjeru ŵa ku Russia ŵali kovwirapo chomene pa nkhani ya mabuku na maghanoghano gha ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia ŵakukhwaskaso chomene sumu, maseŵero, kupenta, na mafilimu. Charu ichi chachitaso vinandi pa nkhani ya sayansi na vyakupangapanga ndiposo kupenja malo.[146][147]
Ku Russia kuli malo 30 agho ghali kulembeka na UNESCO kuti ni malo ghakukondweska ŵanthu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Russia awo ŵakukhala mu vyaru vinyake ŵali kovwirapo chomene pa kusambizga ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia. Chizindikiro cha charu cha Russia, nombo ya mitu yiŵiri, yikamba mu nyengo ya ufumu wa Tsardom, ndipo yili pa vikozgo vya charu ichi. Kanandi nkhalamira ya ku Russia na Mama Russia ni vimanyikwiro vya caru ici.[148][149] Vidoli vya Matryoshka ni vyakuzirwa chomene ku Russia.[150]
Holidays
Mu Russia muli maholide ghankhondi na ghatatu. Chaka chikwamba na Zuŵa la Caka Ciphya pa 1 Janyuwale, ndipo pamanyuma pake pa 7 Janyuwale pakaŵanga Khisimasi. Zuŵa la kuvikilira caru, lakupelekeka ku ŵanalume, likukondwelereka pa Febuluwale 23. Zuŵa la Ŵanakazi pa 8 Malichi, likakura comene mu Russia mu nyengo ya Soviet Union. Zuŵa la ŵanakazi ilo likuŵako chaka chilichose lakhumbikwa chomene na ŵanalume ŵa ku Russia. Zuŵa la Khisimu na la Ŵantchito, ilo likaŵa holide ya mu nyengo ya Soviet, likukondwelereka pa Meyi 1.[151]
Zuŵa la Nkhondo, ilo likukumbukira kuwina kwa Soviet pa Nazi Germany na umaliro wa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose mu Europe, likukondwelereka pa Red Square mu Moscow. Maholide ghanyake agho ŵanthu ŵakukondwelera ni Zuŵa la Russia, ilo likuchitika pa Juni 12, kuti likumbukire umo charu cha Russia chikapharazgira kuti chili na mazaza pa charu chinyake kufuma ku Soviet Union.
Pali maholide ghanandi agho ŵanthu ŵakutemwa. Chaka Ciphya cikukondwelereka pa 14 Janyuwale. Maslenitsa ni holide yakale ya ŵanthu ŵa ku East Slavic. Zuŵa la Cosmonautics pa 12 Epulero, kucindika ulendo wakwamba wa ŵanthu mu mlengalenga. Maholide ghaŵiri ghakuru gha Cikristu ni Isitara na Sabata ya Utatu.[151]
Maluso na kuzenga
Ku Russia, ŵanthu ŵakujambura vithuzithuzi vyakutowa chomene. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1400, Andrei Rublev, uyo wakaŵa nkhwantha ya kupenta vikozgo, wakapanga vinthu vinyake vya cisopa vyakuzirwa comene mu Russia. Wupu wa Russian Academy of Arts, uwo ukakhazikiskika mu 1757, kuti usambizge ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia umo ŵangapangira vithuzithuzi. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵasayansi ŵanyake nga ni Ivan Argunov, Dmitry Levitzky, na Vladimir Borovikovsky ŵakaŵa na nkharo yiwemi. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵakajambura vithuzithuzi vinandi vya Karl Briullov na Alexander Ivanov.[152][153] Ivan Aivazovsky, uyo nayo wakaŵa na nkharo iyi, wakuwoneka kuti wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa chomene pa nkhani ya vyakumera.
Mu ma1860, gulu la ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga vinthu (Peredvizhniki), awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Ivan Kramskoy, Ilya Repin, na Vasiliy Perov, ŵakaleka kughanaghanira chomene vya sukulu iyi. Paumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵakamba kutemwana chomene.[154][155] Ŵaluso ŵa ku Russia awo ŵakamanyikwanga kuti ŵali na nkharo yiwemi ŵakamba kuzura mu 1890 m'paka mu 1930. Ŵaluso ŵanyake awo ŵakamanyikwa chomene mu nyengo iyi ŵakaŵa El Lissitzky, Kazimir Malevich, Natalia Goncharova, Wassily Kandinsky, na Marc Chagall.
Mbiri ya vyakuzengeka vya ku Russia yikamba na vyakuzengeka vyakwambilira vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Slavonia, kweniso vya matchalitchi gha ku Kiev. Pamanyuma pakuti charu cha Kievan Rus' chazgoka Chikhristu, kwa vyaka vinandi chikaŵa na vyakuzengeka vya Byzantine. Aristotle Fioravanti na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Italy ndiwo ŵakambiska nyengo ya kuwuka kwa Yesu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, ŵakazenga matchalitchi agho ghakaŵa nga ni mahema. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, "nthowa ya moto" ya kusongonora yikakura chomene mu Moscow na Yaroslavl, ndipo pachoko na pachoko yikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye umo ŵakazengeranga vinthu mu nyengo ya Naryshkin.
Pamanyuma pa kusintha kwa vinthu kwa Peter the Great, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kutolera kalembero ka ku Russia. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵakamba kutemwana chomene na vyakuzengeka vya Rococo, ndipo ŵakalemba milimo yiwemi chomene ya Bartolomeo Rastrelli na ŵalondezgi ŵake. Ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa chomene awo ŵakazenganga vinthu ku Russia mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, nga ni Vasily Bazhenov, Matvey Kazakov, na Ivan Starov, ŵakapanga vinthu vyakukumbukika ku Moscow na Saint Petersburg. Mu nyengo ya Catherine Mukuru, msumba wa St. Petersburg ukazgoka malo ghakusungirako vinthu vyakale. Mu nyengo ya Alexander I, nyumba izo ŵakazenganga zikaŵa za Ufumu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵakamba kutemwana chomene na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuzgoŵera kalembero kakupambanapambana ka ku Russia. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵakamba kutemwana chomene na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu iyi.[156]
Music
M'paka m'ma 1700, sumu za ku Russia zikaŵa za ku tchalitchi, na za ŵanthu.[157]Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, sumu iyi yikamanyikwa na umo ŵanthu ŵakakhalira pakati pa Mikhail Glinka, uyo wakaŵa wakwimba wakwimba, na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa gulu la The Mighty Handful. Ivyo wakalemba Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, uyo wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa chomene awo ŵakalemba sumu zachitemwa, Sergei Rachmaninoff ndiyo wakalutilira kulemba m'ma 1900. Ŵanyake mwa ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa chomene awo ŵakalemba sumu mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ni Alexander Scriabin, Alexander Glazunov, Igor Stravinsky, Sergei Prokofiev na Dmitri Shostakovich, kweniso Edison Denisov, Sofia Gubaidulina, Georgy Sviridov, na Alfred Schnittke.[158]
Mu nyengo ya Soviet Union, ŵanthu ŵakamanyikwanga chomene na sumu nga ni Vladimir Vysotsky na Bulat Okudzhava. Nangauli boma la Soviet likakanizganga sumu za jazz, kweni zikalutilira kukura ndipo zikazgoka sumu zakumanyikwa comene mu caru ici. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1980, sumu za rock zikaŵa zakutchuka chomene mu Russia, ndipo zikafumiska magulu nga ni Aria, Aquarium, DDT, na Kino. Sumu za pop zikulutilira kukura mu Russia kwambira mu ma 1960, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa pa caru cose nga ni t.A.T.u.[159]
Literature and philosophy
Mabuku gha ku Russia ghakumanyikwa kuti ndigho ghakupambanapambana pa charu chose. Baibolo ili likamba kulembeka mu vyaka vyapakati pa 500 na 1500 C.E., apo ŵanthu ŵakamba kulemba nkhani za mu Baibolo mu ChiSlavonic chakale. Kuzakafika mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yakusambizga Ŵanthu, mabuku ghakaŵa ghakuzirwa chomene, ndipo pakaŵa mabuku gha Mikhail Lomonosov, Denis Fonvizin, Gavrila Derzhavin, na Nikolay Karamzin. Kwambira mu ma 1830, apo mabuku gha ku Russia ghakaŵa mu nyengo ya ndakatulo, mabuku agha ghakaŵa gha ndakatulo chomene. Vinthu vikamba kwenda makora mu nyengo iyi. Vasiliy Zhukovsky na Alexander Pushkin ŵakamba kuyowoya makora. Kuyana na ivyo Pushkin wakalemba, ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakalembako ŵakababika nga ni Mikhail Lermontov, Nikolay Nekrasov, Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy, Fyodor Tyutchev na Afanasy Fet.[162]
Mulembi mukuru wakwamba wa ku Russia wakaŵa Nikolai Gogol. Kufuma apo, pakaŵa Ivan Turgenev, uyo wakalemba nkhani zicoko na mabuku ghanyake. Mwaluŵiro Fyodor Dostoevsky na Leo Tolstoy ŵakamanyikwa pa caru cose. Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin wakalembanga vyakusekeska, apo Nikolai Leskov wakumanyikwa na mabuku ghake ghafupi. Mu hafu yaciŵiri ya vilimika vya m'ma 1900, Anton Chekhov wakalemba nkhani zicoko comene ndipo wakaŵa mulembi wa maseŵero. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, pakaŵaso ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakalemba mabuku nga ni Ivan Krylov, Vissarion Belinsky, na Alexander Griboyedov. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵakughanaghana kuti kukaŵa nyengo iyo visambizgo vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia vikamba kulembeka. Mu nyengo iyi mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakulemba nga ni Alexander Blok, Anna Akhmatova, Boris Pasternak, na Konstantin Balmont. Kweniso pakaŵa ŵalembi ŵa mabuku na mabuku gha nkhani zichoko waka nga ni Aleksandr Kuprin, Ivan Bunin, Leonid Andreyev, Yevgeny Zamyatin, Dmitry Merezhkovsky na Andrei Bely.[162]
Pamasinda pa Nkhondo Yakwamba ya ku Russia mu 1917, mabuku gha ku Russia ghakagaŵikana mu vigaŵa vya Soviet na White émigré. Mu m'ma 1930, fundo yakuti vinthu vikuchitika nadi ndiyo yikamba kulamulira mu Russia. Munthu uyo wakawovwira pakusintha kalembero aka wakaŵa Maxim Gorky. Mikhail Bulgakov wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵalembi ŵakumanyikwa comene mu nyengo ya Soviet Union. Buku la Nikolay Ostrovsky lakuti How the Steel Was Tempered ndilo ndakumanyikwa chomene mu mabuku gha ku Russia. Ŵanandi awo ŵakalemba mabuku agha ŵakaŵa Vladimir Nabokov na Isaac Asimov. Ŵalembi ŵanyake ŵakasuska maghanoghano gha Soviet, nga ni Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, uyo wakalemba vya umoyo wa mu misasa ya Gulag.
Fundo za ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia zikawovwira chomene. Alexander Herzen wakumanyikwa kuti njumoza wa ŵanthu awo ŵakambiska vyaru. Ŵanthu ŵakuti Mikhail Bakunin ndiyo wakambiska chisambizgo chakuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kulamulira ŵanyawo. Peter Kropotkin wakaŵa munthu wakuzirwa comene pa nkhani ya cikomyunizimu. Ivyo Mikhail Bakhtin wakalemba vyawovwira chomene ŵasayansi. Helena Blavatsky wakaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakamulondezganga pa charu chose. Vladimir Lenin, uyo wakaŵa munthu wankhongono comene, wakambiska cisopa ca cikomyunizimu. Kweni Leon Trotsky ndiyo wakambiska cisopa ca Trotsky. Alexander Zinoviev wakaŵa wavinjeru wakuzirwa comene mu hafu yaciŵiri ya vilimika vya m'ma 1900. Alexander Dugin, uyo wakumanyikwa cifukwa ca maghanoghano ghake gha ucigaluka, wakucemeka "mulongozgi wa vyaru vya caru".[163][164][165]
Kuphika
Vyakurya vya ku Russia vikukolerana na umo charu chiliri, mitheto yake, chisopa chake, kweniso malo agho charu ichi chili. Vipambi vya mpunga, tirigu, balere, na mpiru ndivyo vikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵapange vingwa, makeke, na vyakurya vinyake. Cingwa ca mitundu yakupambanapambana cikumanyikwa comene mu Russia. Vyakurya vinyake vyakunowa ni shchi, borsch, ukha, solyanka, na okroshka. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakusazgako smetana na mayonesi ku sopo na saladi.[166][167] Pirozhki, blini, na syrniki ni vyakurya ivyo vikupangika mu charu ichi. Nyama ya nyama yakuchemeka Stroganoff, nyama ya nkhuku yakuchemeka Kiev, nyama ya nyama yakuchemeka pelmeni, na nyama yakuchemeka shashlyk ni vyakurya ivyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kurya. Vyakurya vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵakurya ni mphangwe zakuzura na nyama. Pa saladi iyi pali saladi ya Olive, vinegret, na hering'i.
Vyakumwa vya ku Russia ivyo ni vyakumwa vyakuloŵezga yayi ni kvass, ndipo vyakumwa vyakuloŵezga ni vodka. Charu ichi ndicho chikumwa moŵa unandi chomene pa charu chose, ndipo moŵa ndiwo ŵanthu ŵakumwa chomene. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Russia ŵakutemwa vinyo. Mu Russia ŵanthu ŵakutemwa comene tiyi kwa vilimika vinandi.[168][169][170][171]
Mass media and cinema
Mu Russia muli mawupu gha nkhani ghakujumpha 400, ndipo ghanyake ghakuru chomene ni TASS, RIA Novosti, Sputnik, na Interfax. Ku Russia, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kuwonelera TV.[173][174] Pa mawayilesi 3,000 agho ghali na malayisensi pa charu chose, ghapadera chomene ni Radio Rossii, Vesti FM, Echo of Moscow, Radio Mayak, na Russkoye Radio. Pa manyuzipepara 16,000 agho ghali kulembeka, ghakumanyikwa chomene ni Argumenty i Fakty, Komsomolskaya Pravda, Rossiyskaya Gazeta, Izvestia, na Moskovskij Komsomolets. TV ya boma ya Channel One na Russia-1 ndiyo yikulongozga pa nkhani izi, apo RT ndiyo yikulongozga pa nkhani za ku Russia. Russia ndiyo ni caru cikuru comene pa vyamaseŵera gha pa vidiyo mu Europe, ndipo pali ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 65 miliyoni awo ŵakuseŵera.
Mu Russia, ndipo pamanyuma, mu Soviet Union, ŵanthu ŵakamba kupanga mafilimu ghanandi.[175][176] Ŵalongozgi ŵa mafilimu ŵa mu nyengo ya Soviet Union, comenecomene Sergei Eisenstein na Andrei Tarkovsky, ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono comene pa caru cose.[177][178] Eisenstein wakaŵa msambiri wa Lev Kuleshov, uyo wakambiska fundo ya ku Soviet ya kusinthira mafilimu pa sukulu yakwamba ya mafilimu pa charu chose, ya All-Union Institute of Cinematography. Fundo ya Dziga Vertov yakuti "Kino-Eye" yikakhwaska chomene pa nkhani ya kupanga mafilimu ghavidiyo. Mafilimu ghanandi gha Soviet Socialist Realism ghakaŵa ghakovwira chomene, nga ni Chapaev, The Cranes Are Flying, na Ballad of a Soldier.
Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1960 na 1970, mu Soviet Union mukaŵa mafilimu ghanandi. Vyakusanguluska vya Eldar Ryazanov na Leonid Gaidai vya nyengo yira vikaŵa vyakutchuka chomene, ndipo mazgu agha ghachali kugwiliskirika ntchito mazuŵa ghano.[179][180] Mu 1961-68, Sergey Bondarchuk wakalongosora filimu ya Leo Tolstoy yakuchemeka War and Peace, iyo yikapokera mphotho ya Oscar. Iyi yikaŵa filimu yakuzirwa comene iyo yikaŵako mu Soviet Union. Mu 1969, Vladimir Motyl wakafumiska filimu yakuchemeka White Sun of the Desert. Pamasinda pa kuparanyika kwa Soviet Union, makampani gha mafilimu gha ku Russia ghakaŵa na masuzgo ghakuru, kweni kwamba m'ma 2000, ghakambaso kukura.[181]
Maseŵera
Mpira wa pasi ni maseŵero ghakumanyikwa comene mu Russia. Gulu la mpira la Soviet Union likaŵa lakwamba kuwina maseŵera gha ku Europe apo likathereska vyalo vya ku Europe mu 1960, ndipo likaluta ku ma finals gha ku Europe mu 1988. Gulu la Russia la CSKA Moscow na Zenit Saint Petersburg likathereska nkhonya ya UEFA mu 2005 na 2008.[183][184][185] [186]Gulu la mpira la Russia likafika ku semi-final ya Euro 2008. Russia ndiyo yikachitiska nkhonya ya FIFA Confederations Cup ya 2017, na World Cup ya 2018. Ndipouli, sono timu za ku Russia zilije mwaŵi wa kuseŵera pa maseŵera gha FIFA na UEFA.
Hockey yikumanyikwa chomene mu Russia, ndipo timu ya ku Soviet Union ndiyo yikaŵa na mazaza pa maseŵera agha. Bandy ni maseŵero gha caru ca Russia, ndipo ni caru ico cikucita makora comene pa maseŵero agha. Gulu la mpira la Russia ndilo likathereska EuroBasket 2007, ndipo gulu la mpira la Russia la PBC CSKA Moscow lili pakati pa magulu a mpira opambana kwambiri ku Ulaya. Mpikisano wa chaka chilichonse wa Formula One Russian Grand Prix unachitikira ku Sochi Autodrom mu Sochi Olympic Park, mpaka kutha kwake chifukwa cha kuwukira kwa Russia ku Ukraine mu 2022.[187][188][189][190]
Kwamba kale, ŵanthu ŵakuchita maseŵero gha maseŵero gha ku Russia ndiwo ŵakuchita makora chomene maseŵero agha. Russia ndiyo wakwendeska maseŵero gha maseŵero gha maseŵero ghakukhozga thupi. Ku Russia, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kuseŵera maseŵero ghakuchemeka skating. Mu Russia muli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumanyikwa pa maseŵero gha tennis. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kuseŵera maseŵero gha chesi mu charu ichi. Maseŵera gha Olimpiki gha 1980 ghakachitikira ku Moscow, ndipo maseŵera gha Olimpiki gha mu 2014 gha mu nyengo yakuzizima na gha mu nyengo yakuzizima gha mu 2014 ghakachitikira ku Sochi.[191][192] Ndipouli, caru ca Russia cikapokaso mendulo 43 pa maseŵero gha Olimpiki cifukwa ca kuswa malango gha doping.[193]
Wonaniso
Lua error: bad argument #2 to 'title.new' (unrecognized namespace name 'Portal').
Vyakulemba
- ↑ Crimea, which was annexed by Russia in 2014, remains internationally recognised as a part of Ukraine.[1] Donetsk, Luhansk, Kherson, and Zaporizhzhia oblasts, which were annexed—though are only partially occupied—in 2022, also remain internationally recognised as a part of Ukraine. The southernmost Kuril Islands have been the subject of a territorial dispute with Japan since their occupation by the Soviet Union at the end of World War II.[2]
- ↑ Longola ivyo vyabudika: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedArenaAtlasIslam - ↑ Russian: Российская Федерация, tr. Rossiyskaya Federatsiya, IPA: [rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə]
- ↑ Most notably the Budyonnovsk hospital hostage crisis, the Russian apartment bombings, the Moscow theater hostage crisis, and the Beslan school siege
- ↑ Russia, by land area, is larger than the continents of Australia, Antarctica, and Europe; although it covers a large part of the latter itself. Its land area could be roughly compared to that of South America.
- ↑ Russia has an additional 850 km (530 mi) of coastline along the Caspian Sea, which is the world's largest inland body of water, and has been variously classified as a sea or a lake.[60]
- ↑ Russia borders, clockwise, to its southwest: the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, to its west: the Baltic Sea, to its north: the Barents Sea (White Sea, Pechora Sea), the Kara Sea, the Laptev Sea, and the East Siberian Sea, to its northeast: the Chukchi Sea and the Bering Sea, and to its southeast: the Sea of Okhotsk and the Sea of Japan.
- ↑ In 2020, constitutional amendments were signed into law that limit the president to two terms overall rather than two consecutive terms, with this limit reset for current and previous presidents.[71]
- ↑ Including the Republic of Crimea, and the federal city of Sevastopol, which are disputed between Russia and Ukraine, since the internationally unrecognised annexation of Crimea in 2014[1]
Mwakufuma vyakulemba
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY 4.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from Frequently Asked Questions on Energy Security, International Energy Agency, the International Energy Agency.
Ukaboni
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Pifer, Steven (17 Malichi 2020). "Crimea: Six years after illegal annexation". Brookings Institute. Retrieved 30 Novembala 2021.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Chapple, Amos (4 Janyuwale 2019). "The Kurile Islands: Why Russia And Japan Never Made Peace After World War II". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Retrieved 26 Janyuwale 2022.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Chevalier, Joan F. (2006). "Russian as the National Language: An Overview of Language Planning in the Russian Federation". Russian Language Journal. American Councils for International Education ACTR / ACCELS. 56: 25–36. JSTOR 43669126.
- ↑ Longola ivyo vyabudika: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedauto - ↑ Shevchenko, Nikolay (21 Febuluwale 2018). "Check out Russia's Kalmykia: The only region in Europe where Buddhism rules the roost". Russia Beyond. Retrieved 11 Febuluwale 2023.
- ↑ "Russia - Soviet Union Dissolution, Privatization Process, and Economic Hardship | Britannica". www.britannica.com.
- ↑ Martin Krzywdzinski (2020). Consent and Control in the Authoritarian Workplace: Russia and China Compared. Oxford University Press. pp. 252–. ISBN 978-0-19-252902-2. OCLC 1026492383.
officially a democratic state with the rule of law, in practice an authoritarian dictatorship
- ↑ "Russia: Freedom in the World 2023 Country Report". Freedom House. 20 Julayi 2019. Retrieved 17 Epulelo 2023.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 "Russia – The World Factbook". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 4 Malichi 2022.
- ↑ "World Statistics Pocketbook 2016 edition" (PDF). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Statistics Division. Retrieved 24 Epulelo 2018.
- ↑ "The Russian federation: general characteristics". Federal State Statistics Service. Archived from the original on 28 Julayi 2011. Retrieved 5 Epulelo 2008.
- ↑ Including 2,482,450 people living on the annexed Crimean Peninsula Том 1. Численность и размещение населения. Russian Federal State Statistics Service (in Russian). Retrieved 3 Sekutembala 2022.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 Предварительная оценка численности постоянного населения на 1 января 2022 года и в среднем за 2021 год [Preliminary estimated population as of 1 January 2022 and on the average for 2021] (XLS). Russian Federal State Statistics Service (in Russian). Retrieved 30 Janyuwale 2022.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 "World Economic Outlook Database, April 2023". International Monetary Fund.
- ↑ "GINI index (World Bank estimate) – Russian Federation". World Bank. Retrieved 23 Juni 2022.
- ↑ "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (PDF) (in English). United Nations Development Programme. 8 Sekutembala 2022. Retrieved 8 Sekutembala 2022.
- ↑ Webster's II New College Dictionary. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. 1999. p. 970. ISBN 978-0395962145.
- ↑ Kuchkin, V. A. (2014). Русская земля [Russian land]. In Melnikova, E. A.; Petrukhina, V. Ya. (eds.). Древняя Русь в средневековом мире [Old Rus' in the medieval world] (in Russian). Moscow: Institute of General History of the Russian Academy of Sciences; Ladomir. pp. 700–701.
- ↑ Nazarenko, Aleksandr Vasilevich (2001). "1. Имя "Русь" в древнейшей западноевропейской языковой традиции (XI–XII века)" [The name Rus' in the old tradition of Western European language (XI-XII centuries)]. Древняя Русь на международных путях: междисциплинарные очерки культурных, торговых, политических связей IX–XII веков [Old Rus' on international routes: interdisciplinary essays on cultural, trade, and political ties in the 9th–12th centuries] (in Russian). Languages of the Rus' culture. pp. 40, 42–45, 49–50. ISBN 978-5-7859-0085-1. Archived from the original on 14 Ogasiti 2011.
- ↑ Hellberg-Hirn, Elena (1998). Soil and Soul: The Symbolic World of Russianness. Aldershot [Hants, England]: Ashgate. p. 54. ISBN 1855218712.
- ↑ Merridale, Catherine (2003). "Redesigning History in Contemporary Russia". Journal of Contemporary History. 38 (1): 13–28. doi:10.1177/0022009403038001961. JSTOR 3180694. S2CID 143597960.
- ↑ Shchelinsky, V.E.; Gurova, M.; Tesakov, A.S.; Titov, V.V.; Frolov, P.D.; Simakova, A.N. (30 Janyuwale 2016). "The Early Pleistocene site of Kermek in western Ciscaucasia (southern Russia): Stratigraphy, biotic record and lithic industry (preliminary results)". Quaternary International. 393: 51–69. Bibcode:2016QuInt.393...51S. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2015.10.032.
- ↑ Igor V. Ovchinnikov; Anders Götherström; Galina P. Romanova; Vitaliy M. Kharitonov; Kerstin Lidén; William Goodwin (30 Malichi 2000). "Molecular analysis of Neanderthal DNA from the northern Caucasus". Nature. 404 (6777): 490–493. Bibcode:2000Natur.404..490O. doi:10.1038/35006625. PMID 10761915. S2CID 3101375.
- ↑ Balter, M. (25 Okutobala 2013). "Ancient DNA Links Native Americans With Europe". Science. 342 (6157): 409–410. Bibcode:2013Sci...342..409B. doi:10.1126/science.342.6157.409. PMID 24159019.
- ↑ Gibbons, Ann (21 Febuluwale 2017). "Thousands of horsemen may have swept into Bronze Age Europe, transforming the local population". Science.
- ↑ Lamnidis, Thiseas C.; Majander, Kerttu; Jeong, Choongwon; Salmela, Elina; Wessman, Anna; Moiseyev, Vyacheslav; Khartanovich, Valery; Balanovsky, Oleg; Ongyerth, Matthias; Weihmann, Antje; Sajantila, Antti; Kelso, Janet; Pääbo, Svante; Onkamo, Päivi; Haak, Wolfgang (27 Novembala 2018). "Ancient Fennoscandian genomes reveal origin and spread of Siberian ancestry in Europe". Nature Communications (in English). 9 (1): 5018. Bibcode:2018NatCo...9.5018L. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-07483-5. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 6258758. PMID 30479341. S2CID 53792952.
- ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 Curtis, Glenn E. (1998). "Russia – Early History". Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress. Retrieved 29 Juni 2021.
- ↑ Obolensky, Dimitri (1971). Byzantium & the Slavs. pp. 75–108. ISBN 978-0-88141-008-2.
- ↑ Logan, Donald F. (1992). The Vikings in History (2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 201. ISBN 978-0-415-08396-6.
- ↑ Halperin, Charles J. (Sekutembala 1999). "Novgorod and the 'Novgorodian Land'". Cahiers du Monde russe. EHESS. 40 (3): 345–363. JSTOR 20171136.
- ↑ Anderson, M.S. (2014). The Origins of the Modern European State System, 1494–1618. Routledge. ISBN 978-1317892755.
- ↑ Skrynnikov, R. G. (2015). Reign of Terror: Ivan IV. Brill. pp. 417–421. ISBN 978-9-004-30401-7.
- ↑ Oliver, James A. (2006). The Bering Strait Crossing: A 21st Century Frontier between East and West. Information Architects. pp. 36–37. ISBN 978-0-9546995-8-1.
- ↑ Raeff, Marc (Juni 1970). "The Domestic Policies of Peter III and his Overthrow". The American Historical Review. Oxford University Press. 75 (5): 1289–1310. doi:10.2307/1844479. JSTOR 1844479.
- ↑ Blakemore, Erin (27 Janyuwale 2020). "Who really discovered Antarctica? Depends who you ask". National Geographic. Retrieved 12 Janyuwale 2022.
- ↑ Ghervas, Stella (2015). "The Long Shadow of the Congress of Vienna". Journal of Modern European History. SAGE Publishers. 13 (4): 458–463. doi:10.17104/1611-8944-2015-4-458. JSTOR 26266203. S2CID 151713355.
- ↑ Vincent, J.R. Vincent (1981). "The Parliamentary Dimension of the Crimean War". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society. Cambridge University Press. 31: 37–49. doi:10.2307/3679044. JSTOR 3679044. S2CID 153338264.
- ↑ Taranovski, Theodore (1984). "Alexander III and his Bureaucracy: The Limitations on Autocratic Power". Canadian Slavonic Papers. 26 (2/3): 207–219. doi:10.1080/00085006.1984.11091776. JSTOR 40868293.
- ↑ Doctorow, Gilbert S. (1976). "The Fundamental State Laws of 23 April 1906". The Russian Review. 35 (1): 33–52. doi:10.2307/127655. JSTOR 127655.
- ↑ Figes, Orlando (25 Okutobala 2017). "From Tsar to U.S.S.R.: Russia's Chaotic Year of Revolution". National Geographic. Retrieved 27 Novembala 2021.
- ↑ Haller, Francis (8 Disembala 2003). "Famine in Russia: the hidden horrors of 1921". Le Temps. International Committee of the Red Cross. Retrieved 26 Julayi 2021.
- ↑ Kuromiya, Hirosaki (2005). "Accounting for the Great Terror". Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas. Franz Steiner Verlag. 53 (1): 86–101. JSTOR 41051345.
- ↑ Rosefielde, Steven (1988). "Excess Deaths and Industrialization: A Realist Theory of Stalinist Economic Development in the 1930s". Journal of Contemporary History. SAGE Publishing. 23 (2): 277–289. doi:10.1177/002200948802300207. JSTOR 260849. PMID 11617302. S2CID 26592600.
- ↑ Roberts, Geoffrey (1992). "The Soviet Decision for a Pact with Nazi Germany". Soviet Studies (Europe-Asia Studies). Taylor & Francis. 44 (1): 57–78. JSTOR 152247.
- ↑ Mulligan, Timothy P. (Epulelo 1987). "Spies, Ciphers and 'Zitadelle': Intelligence and the Battle of Kursk, 1943". Journal of Contemporary History. SAGE Publishing. 22 (2): 235–260. doi:10.1177/002200948702200203. JSTOR 260932. S2CID 162709461.
- ↑ Reiman, Michael (2016). "The USSR as the New World Superpower". About Russia, Its Revolutions, Its Development and Its Present. Peter Lang. pp. 169–176. ISBN 978-3-631-67136-8. JSTOR j.ctv2t4dn7.14.
- ↑ Wagg, Stephen; Andrews, David (2007). East Plays West: Sport and the Cold War. Routledge. p. 11. ISBN 978-1-134-24167-5.
- ↑ Dowling, Stephen (12 Epulelo 2021). "Yuri Gagarin: the spaceman who came in from the cold". BBC. Retrieved 15 Janyuwale 2022.
- ↑ Daley, Tad (Meyi 1989). "Afghanistan and Gorbachev's Global Foreign Policy". Asian Survey. University of California Press. 29 (5): 496–513. doi:10.2307/2644534. JSTOR 2644534.
- ↑ Foltynova, Kristyna (1 Okutobala 2021). "The Undoing Of The U.S.S.R.: How It Happened". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Retrieved 15 Janyuwale 2022.
- ↑ Goncharenko, Roman (3 Okutobala 2018). "Russia's 1993 crisis still shaping Kremlin politics, 25 years on". DW News. Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 2 Febuluwale 2022.
- ↑ Chiodo, Abbigail J.; Owyang, Michael T. (2002). "A Case Study of a Currency Crisis: The Russian Default of 1998" (PDF). Canadian Parliamentary Review. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. 86 (6): 7–18.
- ↑ Monaghan, Andrew (Janyuwale 2012). "The vertikal: power and authority in Russia". International Affairs. Oxford University Press. 88 (1): 1–16. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2346.2012.01053.x. JSTOR 41428537.
- ↑ Emerson, Michael (Ogasiti 2008). "Post-Mortem on Europe's First War of the 21st Century" (PDF) (167). Centre for European Policy Studies. doi:10.2139/ssrn.1333553. S2CID 127834430. Retrieved 6 Epulelo 2022.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ↑ "Russian forces launch full-scale invasion of Ukraine". Al Jazeera. 24 Febuluwale 2022. Retrieved 5 Epulelo 2022.
- ↑ "Putin's War Escalation Is Hastening Demographic Crash for Russia". Bloomberg. 18 Okutobala 2022.
- ↑ Clark, Stuart (28 Julayi 2015). "Pluto: ten things we now know about the dwarf planet". The Guardian. Retrieved 20 Juni 2021.
- ↑ "Russia – Land". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 14 Disembala 2021.
- ↑ "Is the Caspian a sea or a lake?". The Economist. 16 Ogasiti 2018. Retrieved 27 Juni 2021.
- ↑ "Russia's Largest Rivers From the Amur to the Volga". The Moscow Times. 15 Meyi 2019. Retrieved 26 Meyi 2021.
- ↑ "Why Russia's thawing permafrost is a global problem". NPR. 22 Janyuwale 2022. Retrieved 7 Julayi 2022.
- ↑ "The Ural Mountains". NASA Earth Observatory. NASA. 13 Julayi 2011. Retrieved 27 Meyi 2021.
- ↑ Gardiner, Beth (23 Malichi 2021). "Will Russia's Forests Be an Asset or an Obstacle in Climate Fight?". Yale University. Retrieved 11 Disembala 2022.
- ↑ Schepaschenko, Dmitry; Moltchanova, Elena; Fedorov, Stanislav; Karminov, Victor; Ontikov, Petr; Santoro, Maurizio; See, Linda; Kositsyn, Vladimir; Shvidenko, Anatoly; Romanovskaya, Anna; Korotkov, Vladimir; Lesiv, Myroslava; Bartalev, Sergey; Fritz, Steffen; Shchepashchenko, Maria; Kraxner, Florian (17 Juni 2021). "Russian forest sequesters substantially more carbon than previously reported". Scientific Reports. Springer Science and Business Media LLC. 11 (1): 12825. Bibcode:2021NatSR..1112825S. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-92152-9. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 8211780. PMID 34140583.
- ↑ Grantham HS, et al. (2020). "Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 5978. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.5978G. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 7723057. PMID 33293507.
- ↑ DeRouen, Karl R.; Heo, Uk (2005). Defense and Security: A Compendium of National Armed Forces and Security Policies. ABC-CLIO. p. 666. ISBN 978-1-85109-781-4.
- ↑ "Chapter 5. The Federal Assembly | The Constitution of the Russian Federation". www.constitution.ru. Retrieved 4 Febuluwale 2022.
- ↑ Remington, Thomas F. (2014). Presidential Decrees in Russia: A Comparative Perspective. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 48. ISBN 978-1-107-04079-3. Retrieved 13 Ogasiti 2022.
- ↑ Brian D. Taylor (2018). The Code of Putinism. Oxford University Press. pp. 2–7. ISBN 978-0-19-086731-7. OCLC 1022076734.
- ↑ "Putin strongly backed in controversial Russian reform vote". BBC. 2 Julayi 2020. Retrieved 18 Julayi 2021.
- ↑ Konitzer, Andrew; Wegren, Stephen K. (2006). "Federalism and Political Recentralization in the Russian Federation: United Russia as the Party of Power". Publius. Oxford University Press. 36 (4): 503–522. doi:10.1093/publius/pjl004. JSTOR 4624765.
- ↑ Russell, Martin (2015). "Russia's constitutional structure" (PDF). European Parliamentary Research Service. European Parliament. doi:10.2861/664907. ISBN 978-92-823-8022-2. Retrieved 3 Novembala 2021.
- ↑ Hale, Henry E. (Malichi 2005). "The Makeup and Breakup of Ethnofederal States: Why Russia Survives Where the USSR Fell". Perspectives on Politics. American Political Science Association. 3 (1): 55–70. doi:10.1017/S153759270505005X. JSTOR 3688110. S2CID 145259594.
- ↑ Orttung, Robert; Lussier, Danielle; Paetskaya, Anna (2000). The Republics and Regions of the Russian Federation: A Guide to Politics, Policies, and Leaders. New York: EastWest Institute. pp. 523–524. ISBN 978-0-7656-0559-7.
- ↑ Shabad, Theodore (Epulelo 1946). "Political-Administrative Divisions of the U.S.S.R., 1945". Geographical Review. Taylor & Francis. 36 (2): 303–311. doi:10.2307/210882. JSTOR 210882.
- ↑ Sharafutdinova, Gulnaz (Epulelo 2006). "When Do Elites Compete? The Determinants of Political Competition in Russian Regions". Comparative Politics. Comparative Politics, Ph.D. Programs in Political Science, City University of New York. 38 (3): 273–293. doi:10.2307/20433998. JSTOR 20433998.
- ↑ Kelesh, Yulia V.; Bessonova, Elena A. (11 Juni 2021). "Digitalization management system of Russia's federal cities focused on prospective application throughout the country" (PDF). SHS Web of Conferences. 110 (5011): 05011. doi:10.1051/shsconf/202111005011. S2CID 236655658.
- ↑ Alessandro, Vitale (2015). "Ethnopolitics as Co-operation and Coexistence: The Case-Study of the Jewish Autonomous Region in Siberia". Politeja. Księgarnia Akademicka (31/2): 123–142. doi:10.12797/Politeja.12.2015.31_2.09. JSTOR 24919780. S2CID 132962208.
- ↑ Nation, R Craig. (2015). "Russia and the Caucasus". Connections. Partnership for Peace Consortium of Defense Academies and Security Studies Institutes. 14 (2): 1–12. doi:10.11610/Connections.14.2.01. JSTOR 26326394.
- ↑ Swanström, Niklas (2012). "Central Asia and Russian Relations: Breaking Out of the Russian Orbit?". Brown Journal of World Affairs. 19 (1): 101–113. JSTOR 24590931.
The Central Asian states have been dependent on Russia since they gained independence in 1991, not just in economic and energy terms, but also militarily and politically.
- ↑ Stengel, Richard (20 Meyi 2022). "Putin May Be Winning the Information War Outside of the U.S. and Europe". TIME.
- ↑ Ryan Bauer and Peter A. Wilson (17 Ogasiti 2020). "Russia's Su-57 Heavy Fighter Bomber: Is It Really a Fifth-Generation Aircraft?". RAND Corporation. Retrieved 28 Juni 2021.
- ↑ International Institute for Strategic Studies (2021). The Military Balance. London: Routledge. p. 191. ISBN 978-1-85743-988-5.
- ↑ Nichol, Jim (24 Ogasiti 2011). "Russian Military Reform and Defense Policy" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Library of Congress. Retrieved 22 Disembala 2021.
- ↑ Bowen, Andrew S. (14 Okutobala 2021). "Russian Arms Sales and Defense Industry". Congressional Research Service. Library of Congress. Retrieved 20 Disembala 2021.
- ↑ Shevchenko, Vitaliy (15 Malichi 2022). "Ukraine war: Protester exposes cracks in Kremlin's war message". BBC. Retrieved 3 Epulelo 2022.
- ↑ "Russian Federation". Amnesty International. Retrieved 16 Malichi 2020.
- ↑ "Russia". Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 20 Novembala 2021.
- ↑ Marquise Francis (7 Epulelo 2022). "What are Russian 'filtration camps'?". Yahoo! News (in American English).
- ↑ Katie Bo Lillis, Kylie Atwood and Natasha Bertrand (26 Meyi 2022). "Russia is depopulating parts of eastern Ukraine, forcibly removing thousands into remote parts of Russia". CNN. Retrieved 17 Novembala 2022.
- ↑ Yılmaz, Müleyke Nurefşan İkbal (31 Ogasiti 2020). "With its Light and Dark Sides; The Unique Semi-Presidential System of the Russian Federation". Küresel Siyaset Merkezi. Retrieved 23 Meyi 2023.
- ↑ Partlett, William (7 Julayi 2010). "Reclassifying Russian Law: Mechanisms, Outcomes, and Solutions for an Overly Politicized Field". Search eLibrary. SSRN 1197762. Retrieved 23 Meyi 2023.
- ↑ Butler, William E. (1999). Criminal Code of the Russian Federation. Springer.
- ↑ "Criminality in Russia". The Organized Crime Index. 4 Meyi 2023. Retrieved 23 Meyi 2023.
- ↑ "The Organized Crime Index". The Organized Crime Index. Retrieved 23 Meyi 2023.
- ↑ "Russia behind bars: the peculiarities of the Russian prison system". OSW Centre for Eastern Studies. 7 Febuluwale 2019. Retrieved 23 Meyi 2023.
- ↑ Churkina, Natalie; Zaverskiy, Sergey (2017). "Challenges of strong concentration in urbanization: the case of Moscow in Russia". Procedia Engineering. Elsevier. 198: 398–410. doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2017.07.095.
- ↑ Glenn E. Curtis, ed. (1998). "Russia – Natural Resources". Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress. Retrieved 25 Juni 2021.
- ↑ "List of importing markets for the product exported by Russian Federation in 2021". International Trade Centre. Retrieved 27 Juni 2022.
- ↑ "List of supplying markets for the product imported by Russian Federation in 2021". International Trade Centre. Retrieved 27 Juni 2022.
- ↑ Martin, Nik (6 Sekutembala 2022). "Is Russia's economy really hurting?". DW News. Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 2 Okutobala 2022.
- ↑ Warren, Katie (3 Janyuwale 2020). "I rode the legendary Trans-Siberian Railway on a 2,000-mile journey across 4 time zones in Russia. Here's what it was like spending 50 hours on the longest train line in the world". Business Insider. Retrieved 10 Juni 2021.
- ↑ "Railways – The World Factbook". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 15 Juni 2021.
- ↑ "Oil Market and Russian Supply – Russian supplies to global energy markets – Analysis". IEA (in British English). Retrieved 18 Meyi 2022.
- ↑ "Gas Market and Russian Supply – Russian supplies to global energy markets – Analysis". IEA (in British English). Retrieved 18 Meyi 2022.
- ↑ https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/1b5RpebS/Maximov-tezisy.pdf [bare URL PDF]
- ↑ "Росстат впервые рассчитал долю нефти и газа в российском ВВП". РБК. 13 Julayi 2021.
- ↑ "Oil & gas share of Russia's GDP dropped to 15% in 2020". neftegazru.com. 14 Julayi 2021.
- ↑ "Oil & gas share of Russia's GDP dropped to 15% in 2020 | NORVANREPORTS.COM | Business News, Insurance, Taxation, Oil & Gas, Maritime News, Ghana, Africa, World". 14 Julayi 2021.
- ↑ "Oil & Gas Share Of Russia's GDP Dropped To 15% In 2020". OilPrice.com.
- ↑ Whiteman, Adrian; Akande, Dennis; Elhassan, Nazik; Escamilla, Gerardo; Lebedys, Arvydas; Arkhipova, Lana (2021). Renewable Energy Capacity Statistics 2021 (PDF). Abu Dhabi: International Renewable Energy Agency. ISBN 978-92-9260-342-7. Retrieved 3 Janyuwale 2022.
- ↑ "The importance of Ukraine and the Russian Federation for global agricultural markets and the risks associated with the current conflict" (PDF). Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization. 25 Malichi 2022. Retrieved 8 Julayi 2022.
- ↑ "Wheat in Russia | OEC". OEC – The Observatory of Economic Complexity.
- ↑ Medetsky, Anatoly; Durisin, Megan (23 Sekutembala 2020). "Russia's Dominance of the Wheat World Keeps Growing". Bloomberg L.P. Retrieved 15 Juni 2021.
- ↑ "Russia – Economy". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 1 Julayi 2021.
- ↑ "RUSSIAN FEDERATION" (PDF). World Intellectual Property Organization. United Nations. Retrieved 17 Novembala 2021.
- ↑ Morgan, Frank (Febuluwale 2009). "Manifolds with Density and Perelman's Proof of the Poincaré Conjecture". The American Mathematical Monthly. Taylor & Francis. 116 (2): 134–142. doi:10.1080/00029890.2009.11920920. JSTOR 27642690. S2CID 6068179.
- ↑ "The Distinguished Life and Career of George Gamow". University of Colorado Boulder. 11 Meyi 2016. Retrieved 21 Janyuwale 2022.
- ↑ "Satellite Database". Union of Concerned Scientists. Retrieved 18 Ogasiti 2022.
- ↑ "Russian Federation Contribution of travel and tourism to GDP (% of GDP), 1995–2019". Knoema.
- ↑ "Kremlin and Red Square, Moscow". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 20 Febuluwale 2022.
- ↑ "Population density (people per sq. km of land area)". The World Bank. Retrieved 16 Juni 2021.
- ↑ Foltynova, Kristyna (19 Juni 2020). "Migrants Welcome: Is Russia Trying To Solve Its Demographic Crisis By Attracting Foreigners?". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Retrieved 9 Julayi 2021.
Russia has been trying to boost fertility rates and reduce death rates for several years now. Special programs for families have been implemented, anti-tobacco campaigns have been organized, and raising the legal age to buy alcohol was considered. However, perhaps the most successful strategy so far has been attracting migrants, whose arrival helps Russia to compensate population losses.
- ↑ Ragozin, Leonid (3 Epulelo 2019). "Russia and Ukraine Fight, But Their People Seek Reconciliation". Bloomberg L.P. Retrieved 19 Epulelo 2021.
- ↑ "Оценка численности постоянного населения по субъектам Российской Федерации". Federal State Statistics Service. Retrieved 1 Sekutembala 2022.
- ↑ Lazarev, Vladimir; Pravikova, Ludmila. "The North Caucasus Bilingualism and Language Identity" (PDF). Pyatigorsk State Linguistic University: 1325.
The North Caucasus, inhabited by more than 100 of autochthonous and allochthonous peoples, including Russians, is a unique locus for conducting a large-scale research in the area of bilingualism and multilingualism.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ↑ Iryna, Ulasiuk (2011). "Legal protection of linguistic diversity in Russia: past and present". Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. European University Institute. 32 (1): 71–83. doi:10.1080/01434632.2010.536237. ISSN 0143-4632. S2CID 145612470.
Russia is unique in its size and ethnic composition. There is a further linguistic complexity of more than 150 co-existing languages.
- ↑ "Russia – Ethnic groups and languages". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 8 Novembala 2020.
Although ethnic Russians comprise more than four-fifths of the country's total population, Russia is a diverse, multiethnic society. More than 120 ethnic groups, many with their own national territories, speaking some 100 languages live within Russia's borders.
- ↑ Jankiewicz, Szymon; Knyaginina, Nadezhda; Prina, Federic (13 Malichi 2020). "Linguistic rights and education in the republics of the Russian Federation: towards unity through uniformity" (PDF). Review of Central and East European Law. Brill. 45 (1): 59–91. doi:10.1163/15730352-bja10003. ISSN 0925-9880. S2CID 216273023.
- ↑ Bondarenko, Dmitry V.; Nasonkin, Vladimir V.; Shagieva, Rozalina V.; Kiyanova, Olga N.; Barabanova, Svetlana V. (2018). "Linguistic Diversity In Russia Is A Threat To Sovereignty Or A Condition Of Cohesion?" (PDF). Modern Journal of Language Teaching Methods. 8 (5): 166–182. ISSN 2251-6204.
- ↑ Bourdeaux, Michael (2003). "Trends in Religious Policy". Eastern Europe, Russia and Central Asia. Taylor and Francis. pp. 46–52 [47]. ISBN 978-1857431377.
- ↑ Fagan, Geraldine (2013). Believing in Russia: Religious Policy After Communism. Routledge. ISBN 9780415490023. p. 127.
- ↑ Bourdeaux, Michael; Filatov, Sergey, eds. (2006). Современная религиозная жизнь России. Опыт систематического описания [Contemporary religious life of Russia. Systematic description of experiences] (in Russian). Vol. 4. Moscow: Keston Institute; Logos. ISBN 5987040574.
- ↑ Menzel, Brigit; Hagemeister, Michael; Glatzer Rosenthal, Bernice, eds. (2012). The New Age of Russia: Occult and Esoteric Dimensions (PDF). Kubon & Sagner. ISBN 978-3866881976. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 Sekutembala 2021.
- ↑ Longola ivyo vyabudika: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedArenaAtlas2012 - ↑ "Lomonosov Moscow State University". QS World University Rankings. Retrieved 28 Juni 2021.
- ↑ Kouptsov, Oleg (1997). Mutual recognition of qualifications: the Russian Federation and the other European countries. Bucharest: UNESCO. p. 25. ISBN 929-0-69146-8.
{{cite book}}:|work=ignored (help) - ↑ "Population with tertiary education". OECD. 2022. doi:10.1787/0b8f90e9-en. Retrieved 21 Janyuwale 2022.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ↑ "Global Flow of Tertiary-Level Students". UNESCO. Retrieved 4 Janyuwale 2022.
- ↑ Morton, Elise (25 Meyi 2018). "Russian rivieia: from Soviet sanatoriums to lush gardens, your walking guide to seaside Sochi". Calvert 22 Foundation. Retrieved 7 Janyuwale 2022.
- ↑ Cook, Linda (Febuluwale 2015). "Constraints on Universal Health Care in the Russian Federation" (PDF). United Nations Research Institute for Social Development. Geneva: United Nations. Retrieved 3 Janyuwale 2022.
- ↑ "Current health expenditure (% of GDP) – Russian Federation". World Bank. Retrieved 21 Epulelo 2021.
Data retrieved on January 30, 2022.
- ↑ "Preventing suicide: Russian Federation adapts WHO self-harm monitoring tool". World Health Organization. 9 Okutobala 2020. Retrieved 3 Janyuwale 2022.
- ↑ Lincoln, W.B. (10 Okutobala 1970). "Western Culture Comes to Russia". 20 (10). History Today. Retrieved 14 Janyuwale 2022.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ↑ Hachten, Elizabeth A. (2002). "In Service to Science and Society: Scientists and the Public in Late-Nineteenth-Century Russia". Osiris. The University of Chicago Press. 17: 171–209. doi:10.1086/649363. JSTOR 3655271. S2CID 144835649.
- ↑ Ipatieff, V.N. (1943). "Modern Science in Russia". The Russian Review. Wiley. 2 (2): 68–80. doi:10.2307/125254. JSTOR 125254.
- ↑ Platoff, Anne M. (2012). "The 'Forward Russia' Flag: Examining the Changing Use of the Bear as a Symbol of Russia" (PDF). Raven: A Journal of Vexillology. 19: 99–126. doi:10.5840/raven2012197. ISSN 1071-0043.
- ↑ Riabov, Oleg (2020). "The Symbol of the Motherland in the Legitimation and Delegitimation of Power in Contemporary Russia". Nationalities Papers. 48 (4): 752–767. doi:10.1017/nps.2019.14. ISSN 0090-5992. S2CID 214578255.
- ↑ Joanna, Hubbs (1993). Mother Russia: The Feminine Myth in Russian Culture. Indiana University Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-253-20842-2.
- ↑ 151.0 151.1 Leonov, Tatyana (5 Epulelo 2018). "Celebrate: Russian Orthodox Easter". Special Broadcasting Service. Retrieved 12 Janyuwale 2022.
- ↑ Dianina, Katia (2018). "The Making of an Artist as National Hero". Slavic Review. Cambridge University Press. 77 (1): 122–150. doi:10.1017/slr.2018.13. JSTOR 26565352. S2CID 165942177.
- ↑ Sibbald, Balb (5 Febuluwale 2002). "If the soul is nourished ..." Canadian Medical Association Journal. 166 (3): 357–358. PMC 99322.
- ↑ Reeder, Roberta (Julayi 1976). "Mikhail Vrubel': A Russian Interpretation of "fin de siècle" Art". The Slavonic and East European Review. Modern Humanities Research Association. 54 (3): 323–334. JSTOR 4207296.
- ↑ Archer, Kenneth (1986). "Nicholas Roerich and His Theatrical Designs: A Research Survey". Dance Research Journal. Dance Studies Association. 18 (2): 3–6. doi:10.2307/1478046. JSTOR 1478046. S2CID 191516851.
- ↑ Zubovich-Eady, Katherine (2013). "To the New Shore: Soviet Architecture's Journey from Classicism to Standardization" (PDF). University of California, Berkeley. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 Janyuwale 2022. Retrieved 15 Janyuwale 2022.
- ↑ Curtis, Glenn E. (1998). "Russia – Music". Washington D.C.: Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress. Retrieved 25 Juni 2021.
- ↑ "Russia – Music". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 7 Julayi 2021.
- ↑ "Tatu bad to be true". The Age. 14 Juni 2003. Retrieved 7 Julayi 2021.
- ↑ Thirlwell, Adam (8 Okutobala 2005). "A masterpiece in miniature". The Guardian. Retrieved 25 Julayi 2021.
- ↑ Dahlkvist, Tobias (Okutobala 2015). "The Epileptic Genius: The Use of Dostoevsky as Example in the Medical Debate over the Pathology of Genius". Journal of the History of Ideas. University of Pennsylvania Press. 76 (4): 587–608. doi:10.1353/jhi.2015.0028. ISSN 0022-5037. JSTOR 43948762. PMID 26522713. S2CID 37817118.
- ↑ 162.0 162.1 Glenn E. Curtis, ed. (1998). "Russia – Literature". Washington D.C.: Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress. Retrieved 27 Julayi 2021.
- ↑ Rutland, Peter (Disembala 2016). "Geopolitics and the Roots of Putin's Foreign Policy". Russian History. Brill Publishers. 43 (3–4): 425–436. doi:10.1163/18763316-04304009. JSTOR 26549593.
- ↑ Day, Richard B., ed. (1973), "The myth of Trotskyism", Leon Trotsky and the Politics of Economic Isolation, Cambridge Russian, Soviet and Post-Soviet Studies, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 3–16, doi:10.1017/CBO9780511524028.002, ISBN 978-0-521-52436-0, retrieved 14 Malichi 2022
- ↑ Brom, Libor (1988). "Dialectical Identity and Destiny: A General Introduction to Alexander Zinoviev's Theory of the Soviet Man". Rocky Mountain Review of Language and Literature. Rocky Mountain Modern Language Association. 42 (1/2): 15–27. doi:10.2307/1347433. JSTOR 1347433. S2CID 146768452.
- ↑ Eremeeva, Jennifer (15 Meyi 2021). "Spotlight on Smetana: Russia's Sour Cream". The Moscow Times. Retrieved 18 Meyi 2021.
- ↑ Shearlaw, Maeve (21 Novembala 2014). "Understanding Russia's obsession with mayonnaise". The Guardian. Retrieved 5 Disembala 2021.
- ↑ Teslova, Elena (31 Janyuwale 2021). "Russian samovars make tea-time distinctive tradition". Anadolu Agency. Retrieved 17 Novembala 2021.
- ↑ Obzor rossiyskogo rynka alkogol'noy produktsii. IV kvartal 2020 Обзор российского рынка алкогольной продукции. IV квартал 2020 (PDF) (Report) (in Russian). Analytical Center for the Government of the Russian Federation. Febuluwale 2021. p. 11. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 Epulelo 2021. Retrieved 10 Febuluwale 2022.
- ↑ Eremeeva, Jennifer (4 Julayi 2020). "Kvas: Russia's National Tipple". The Moscow Times. Retrieved 19 Meyi 2021.
- ↑ Nosowitz, Dan (7 Epulelo 2016). "How To Drink Vodka Like a Russian". Atlas Obscura. Retrieved 19 Meyi 2021.
- ↑ Sinelschikova, Yekaterina (8 Ogasiti 2017). "The high life: How to get to Ostankino Tower and what to do there". Russia Beyond. Retrieved 23 Disembala 2021.
- ↑ "Russia profile – Media". BBC. 8 Juni 2021. Retrieved 25 Novembala 2021.
- ↑ Krasnoboka, Natalya. "Russia – Media Landscape". European Journalism Centre. Archived from the original on 20 Malichi 2018. Retrieved 15 Meyi 2021.
- ↑ Miller, Jamie (2006). "Soviet Cinema, 1929–41: The Development of Industry and Infrastructure". Europe-Asia Studies. 58 (1): 103–124. doi:10.1080/09668130500401715. JSTOR 20451166. S2CID 153570960.
- ↑ Hodgson, Jonathan (4 Disembala 2020). "Eisenstein, Sergei – Battleship Potemkin – 1925 Russia". Middlesex University. Retrieved 10 Julayi 2021.
- ↑ Brown, Mike (22 Janyuwale 2018). "Sergei Eisenstein: How the "Father of Montage" Reinvented Cinema". Inverse. Retrieved 27 Meyi 2021.
- ↑ Gray, Carmen (27 Okutobala 2015). "Where to begin with Andrei Tarkovsky". British Film Institute. Retrieved 27 Meyi 2021.
He made only seven features, but Russian director Andrei Tarkovsky is widely regarded as one of cinema's true masters.
- ↑ "Eldar Ryazanov And His Films". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 30 Novembala 2015. Retrieved 27 Meyi 2021.
- ↑ Prokhorova, Elena; Beumers, Birgit (2008). "The Man Who Made Them Laugh: Leonid Gaidai, the King of Soviet Comedy". A History of Russian Cinema. Berg Publishers. pp. 519–542. ISBN 978-1-84520-215-6.
- ↑ Aris, Ben (18 Janyuwale 2019). "The Revival of Russia's Cinema Industry". The Moscow Times. Retrieved 25 Meyi 2021.
- ↑ Badenhausen, Kurt (8 Malichi 2016). "How Maria Sharapova Earned $285 Million During Her Tennis Career". Forbes. Retrieved 15 Febuluwale 2020.
- ↑ "Sporting-CSKA Moskva: watch their 2005 final". UEFA Champions League. 7 Ogasiti 2015. Retrieved 31 Meyi 2021.
- ↑ Terry, Joe (18 Novembala 2019). "How a brilliant Zenit Saint Petersburg lifted the UEFA Cup in 2008". These Football Times. Retrieved 31 Meyi 2021.
- ↑ "Classics: Soviet Union vs Netherlands, 1988". UEFA Champions League. 29 Meyi 2020. Retrieved 31 Meyi 2021.
- ↑ "EURO 1960: all you need to know". UEFA Champions League. 13 Febuluwale 2020. Retrieved 31 Meyi 2021.
- ↑ "Russia – Sochi". Formula One. Retrieved 31 Meyi 2021.
- ↑ Benson, Andrew (3 Malichi 2022). "Formula 1 terminates contract with Russian Grand Prix". BBC. Retrieved 7 Julayi 2022.
- ↑ Trisvyatsky, Ilya (14 Febuluwale 2013). "Bandy: A concise history of the extreme sport". Russia Beyond. Retrieved 7 Julayi 2021.
- ↑ Gancedo, Javier (16 Sekutembala 2007). "EuroBasket 2007 final: September 16, 2007". EuroLeague. Retrieved 31 Meyi 2021.
- ↑ "Sochi 2014 Winter Olympics – Athletes, Medals & Results". International Olympic Committee. 23 Epulelo 2018. Retrieved 31 Meyi 2021.
- ↑ "Sochi 2014". International Paralympic Committee. Retrieved 31 Meyi 2021.
- ↑ Keh, Andrew; Panja, Tariq (8 Disembala 2019). "Will Russia Be Thrown Out of the Olympics on Monday? A Primer". The New York Times. Retrieved 9 Janyuwale 2022.
Vyakulemba vinyake
- Bartlett, Roger P. A history of Russia (2005) online
- Breslauer, George W. and Colton, Timothy J. 2017. Russia Beyond Putin (Daedalus) online
- Brown, Archie, ed. The Cambridge encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union (1982) online
- Dutkiewicz, P.; Richard, S.; Vladimir, K. (2016). The Social History of Post-Communist Russia. Routledge Contemporary Russia and Eastern Europe Series. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-32846-9. Retrieved 11 Epulelo 2022.
- Florinsky, Michael T. ed. McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union (1961).
- Frye, Timothy. Weak Strongman: The Limits of Power in Putin's Russia (2021) excerpt
- Greene, by Samuel A. and Graeme B. Robertson. Putin v. the People: the Perilous Politics of a Divided Russia (Yale UP, 2019) excerpt
- Hosking, Geoffrey A. Russia and the Russians: a history (2011) online
- Kort, Michael. A Brief History of Russia (2008) online
- Kropotkin, Peter Alexeivitch; Bealby, John Thomas; Phillips, Walter Alison (1911). . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica (in English). Vol. 23 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 869–912.
- Lowe, Norman. Mastering Twentieth Century Russian History (2002) excerpt
- Millar, James R. ed. Encyclopedia of Russian History (4 vol 2003). online
- Riasanovsky, Nicholas V., and Mark D. Steinberg. A History of Russia (9th ed. 2018) 9th edition 1993 online
- Rosefielde, Steven. Putin's Russia: Economy, Defence and Foreign Policy (2020) excerpt
- Service, Robert. A History of Modern Russia: From Tsarism to the Twenty-First Century (Harvard UP, 3rd ed., 2009) excerpt
- Smorodinskaya, Tatiana, and Karen Evans-Romaine, eds. Encyclopedia of Contemporary Russian Culture (2014) excerpt; 800 pp covering art, literature, music, film, media, crime, politics, business, and economics.
- Walker, Shauin. The Long Hangover: Putin's New Russia and the Ghosts Of the Past (2018, Oxford UP) excerpt
Vigaŵa vya kuwalo
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Resources from Wikiversity
Travel information from Wikivoyage
Government
- Official Russian governmental portal
- Chief of State and Cabinet Members (archived 4 October 2013)
General information
- Russia at Curlie
Wikimedia Atlas of Russia
Geographic data related to Russia at OpenStreetMap- Russia. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- Russia at UCB Libraries GovPubs (archived 22 October 2008)
- Russia from BBC News
- Russia at Encyclopædia Britannica
- Key Development Forecasts for Russia from International Futures
Vinyake
- Post-Soviet Problems from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives (archived 15 December 2012)