Introduction
The Roman Empire was one of the largest and most enduring in world history.
The saying "All Roads Lead to Rome" alludes to this central hub of technology, literature, culture and architecture in the ancient world.
The engineers of the Roman age created an unparalleled network of roads in ancient history. Approximately 50,000 miles (80,000 km) of roads spread Roman civilization, influence and the mighty legions throughout the western world.
They built strong arched bridges, and mastered the concept of "running water" using aqueducts that, among other things, supplied public baths rivaling today's modern water facilities.
At the height of its power in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, the Roman Empire consisted of some 2.2 million square miles (5.7 million sq. km). A population of 60 million people (or as much as 1/5 of the world's population at that time) claimed citizenship of Rome, and as many as 120 million people may have lived within the borders of the Empire during this period.
A map of the Roman Empire at its greatest extent in 117 AD
The time of powerful Roman emperors ruling over vast swathes of land are likely to be the most common image of the Romans which first comes to mind, but it was in fact the third type of government that the ancient Romans utilized to rule.
The Roman Empire – Territory or Government?
The term "Roman Empire" can actually relate to two different things.
A Form of Government
The first is the Roman Empire as a form of government, in which power rested solely with the emperor himself; although, how much power and overall control each emperor had varied tremendously.
For example, early emperors such as Tiberius and Nero had much more authority and final say over matters than later emperors, as the Roman empire began to crumble for good and power struggles were far more frequent.
Since the date of the legendary founding of Rome in 753 BC by the twin brothers Romulus and Remus, the city of Rome and its surrounding territories had been ruled first by kings up until 509 BC, and then as a republic, with power concentrated in the senate.
Although the Roman republic lasted roughly 500 years as a system of government, by the 1st century BC numerous factors such as rapid territorial expansion, changes to the class system and general make-up of the population and the actions of powerful men of influence such as Gaius Marius, Sulla and the Gracchi brothers all combined to spell the end of the Republic and the assumption of power by one individual.
A Reference to Land and Territory
"The Roman Empire" can also be used to describe the huge areas of land under Roman control.
At its peak around about the year 117 AD, the Romans could count nearly all of the countries, land masses and oceans of modern-day Europe and North Africa as their own.
This can be seen visually in our very own Roman Empire Wall Maps and shows just how enormous the Roman Empire was at its greatest extend around this time period.
An emperor is typically regarded as the head of an empire. So for some, whenever referring to the land controlled by the Romans, it would only be correct to call it ‘The Roman Empire' when speaking about a period after the accession of Augustus.
However, this is often a bit too precise, and empires do not necessarily need an emperor or empress at their head (for instance, the period of the British empire only ever had a king or queen as the head and never an emperor or empress), so really, it is all just a question of semantics.
When most people say the Roman Empire, they are likely to be talking about the land and seas controlled by the Romans during either the Republic or the Imperial period.
When did the Roman Empire Start?
Although Julius Caesar is largely considered to be Rome's first individual ruler since the days of the last king of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (Tarquin the Proud), in all but name, it was not until he was succeeded by his nephew Octavian, whom he adopted as his son, that the time of the Republic was truly over.
Octavian's succession in 27 BC as Emperor Augustus (a title conferred on him by the senate - the ‘august' or exalted one), Rome's first emperor, marked the beginning of the Roman imperial period (the time when Rome was now ruled by emperors).
The Early Roman Empire
Augustus' ascendancy as the first Roman Emperor in 27 BC, followed by confirmation of his powers in 23 and 19 BC, marked a clear, irrevocable, yet necessary change in Roman political philosophy.
No longer were the Imperators, or ruler generals of the former Republic, in position to challenge Republican constitutional ideals.
With the institution of the emperor into figure-head status, along with literal supreme power of the entire Roman world, the social and political squabbles of the old system gave way to new challenges.
The political ills of the Republic were soon to be replaced with royal family intrigue and Praetorian corruption mixed in with the occasional interference of the Senate, which still existed as a governing body, though largely stripped of any real power.
At first, however, Augustus largely avoided these problems through shrewd political manipulation, the overwhelming support of the masses, and complete unadulterated control of the legions.
While later successors, especially those within his own Julio-Claudian line, proved themselves incapable or undeserving of their positions, which were granted largely due to family ties, Augustus was the perfect, if not only man capable of settling the civil wars of the former Republic.
The Principate (from the imperial title Princips for 'first among equals') as the early empire was known, was established simply through the brilliance of Augustus, and of course through the efforts of those who supported him.
Without him, including his personality, prestige and dignity, along with the ever popular name of Caesar as validation, the Roman nation and all its provinces may have slid into a continual degeneration of political upheaval and civil war.
Because of him, this potential and destructive further slide into historical oblivion was avoided, at least for another five centuries.
After years of civil war and general instability the entire Roman way of life was in danger of collapse, both internally and from external enemies.
Great empires like Parthia challenged Roman authority in the east, while the many individual tribes of places like Germania and even mostly Romanized Hispania provided considerable reason for concern along the frontiers.
A final settlement of resistance to Roman rule, which had so easily propped up in the wake of attention given to internal conflicts, was necessary on a fairly wide scale.
Though later in life, Augustus adopted and encouraged a strict imperial strategy of maintaining the status quo of the borders ('Pax Romana'), war and conquest was a necessary strategy from the onset of his reign.
Modern-day Germany (Germania) Switzerland (Raetia), Austria (Noricum), and the Balkans, (Pannonia and Moesia) were early sources of expansion, and the east, long ruled at least in part by client kings, was in dire need of additional imperial control.
Despite these foreign wars which would commence early in his tenure, and a great bloodless victory over Parthia which saw the return of Crassus' lost standards from the battle of Carrhae some 30 years earlier, Augustus was far more than a warrior prince.
During his long, stabilizing and prosperous rule, Rome entered into a new golden age where the arts, architecture and literature flourished.
Under Augustus, Rome went through an enlightened period where literature reined supreme within the eternal city.
Latin's great poets: Virgil, Horace and Ovid published their brilliant works mostly during the Augustan age, while others like the satirist Petronius, Strabo the geographer, Vitruvius and the invaluable ancient historian Livy contributed their own forms of literature.
But the written word was not the only great contribution of the Augustan age. Under his friend and confidant Marcus Vipsanisu Agrippa, Rome received a major face-lift in which it was transformed from a city of brick into a true imperial city of great marble structures, worthy of the title: Capital of the World.
Among those projects undertaken were three aqueducts supplying fresh water to the growing city: the Julia, Virgo and Alsietina.
The original Pantheon, the great temple of the Roman gods, Agrippa's baths, the Saepta Julia and Augustus' Mausoleum were built as well.
Improvements to, or complete replacements were constructed for nearly every public building including courthouses, offices and administrative buildings of all kinds.
Perhaps even more importantly, Augustus conducted a major census of the city and provinces, which had long been neglected during the civil wars.
Though he faced many challenges, some devastating, like the loss of three legions in the Teutoburger Wald of Germania, Augustus ruled Rome in virtual contrast to all administrations both before and after. Stability and general prosperity ruled the day.
Even the urban poor in a vast, sprawling city then exceeding 1 million residents, seemed to have little complaint.
Octavian's imperial name of Augustus was not only an honorific title, but proved to be the truest definition of the man who bore it: Imperator Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus Augustus was a man without peer in the ancient world.
The Principate
As Augustus established a new governing order, he effectively created a position as administrative head of state that had previously been occupied by several men.
As princeps or 'first among equals' there was no official title of emperor as we know it today, and this distinction was very important in ancient Rome.
Theoretically, the establishment of 'Empire' was only a temporary diversion from true Republican rule. After his death, it might be assumed that the government, and all the positions held by Augustus would revert to the old system. As Princeps, even under the new constitutional system, Augustus had no more right to establish a line of succession than was possible in the Republic.
Being the first to hold such a position, however, allowed the new system to develop under a powerful and capable leader. As time passed, the concept of the Roman Republic drifted farther and farther into oblivion.
The long rule of Augustus, the elimination of opponents and the fear of a return to civil war and imperator generals seemingly destroyed any concept of a re-established Republic.
Augustus was alone made the head of the state, and there was no established order for succession. Naming a successor was akin to a provincial governor establishing his own hereditary rule. It simply didn't happen.
By the time of Augustus' death in 14 AD, however, it was absolutely inconceivable that there wouldn't be a replacement Princeps.
Holding Tribunician power of the veto, administrative authority of the Consulship, religious domination as Pontifex Maximus and supreme command of the armies, the idea of Augustus really being just 'first among equals' was really a farce.
While the Senate still officially had the right to name someone to that position, there were none who could possibly argue with the edicts of the divine Emperor himself.
The idea of succession evolved much in the same manner as naming a patriarchal heir in any Roman family.
Augustus looked for choices both within and without his own family. The fact that he had no son, much like his own adoptive father Julius Caesar, would prove to be the biggest enduring challenge faced during his rule.
While the potential for succession to the highest position in the known world existed, destabilizing domestic turmoil was the order of the day.
Though the nature of attempting to curry Augustus' favor brought its own elements of intrigue, his own family's dysfunction played as much a part as the potential to be his heir.
The Imperial Dynasty
In keeping with Roman tradition, Augustus utilized the positions of the cursus honorum to favor members of his own family.
Through adoption and marriage, Augustus sought to establish a pool of potential heirs by placing various family members in positions of authority. In doing this, Augustus helped preserve the dynasty just as it was beginning.
As it turned out, he clearly identified several choices throughout his reign, and his foresight in favoring multiple candidates at once assured that a 'Caesar' would eventually succeed him.
The first among these candidates was his nephew Marcellus. The son of his sister Octavia was brought into political life in much the same manner as Augustus himself was by Julius Caesar, participating as a key player in Augustus' triumphs of 29 BC. He was allowed to hold offices far before the required ages, and in 25 BC was married to Augustus' 14-year-old daughter, Julia, to cement the relationship.
In 23 BC, however, Augustus fell terribly ill, and he wisely looked beyond his 19-year-old nephew for stability of the state. His signet ring was passed to his old friend and legionary commander, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa.
Agrippa had already been married to Augustus' niece Marcella and his status as a trusted friend and respected member of Roman society was the logical choice in the case of possible tragedy.
As it turned out, Augustus recovered from his illness, but his first dynastic choice, Marcellus, died in the same year (23 BC) from an illness of his own.
Agrippa was soon married to the widowed Julia (who turned out later to be a horrible embarrassment to Augustus due to marital infidelity), and he was sent east to act as Augustus' agent.
There has been some speculation that Agrippa was sent east due to a falling out between the two, but the evidence suggests that this couldn't be farther from the truth. Along with being granted proconsular imperium while away, he was also granted tribunician power in 18 BC.
Agrippa's marriage with Julia also proved to be of great benefit to the dynastic line, at least temporarily. Agrippa and Julia had three sons, Gaius, Lucius and Postumus (so named because he was born after his father's death) and two daughters. The first two sons (Augustus' blood grandchildren) were adopted as - and were propped up as - his heirs.
The situation was ideal for the time being. Augustus' old friend Agrippa would be in position to take over for Augustus, while both men could groom the directly related Gaius and Lucius for continuing the Principate.
But fate intervened early with this plan. In 12 BC Agrippa died while on campaign in Pannonia and the order of succession was left in doubt again.
At this time, while Gaius and Lucius (8 and 5 years old respectively) were still in line for succession, the empire could not be left without a qualified heir to take over immediately.
To fill the gap, the sons of his wife Livia - Tiberius and Drusus - who had been advanced under Augustus already, now stood as Augustus' oldest and most viable male heirs.
Tiberius was married to Julia (her third stint as wife to Augustus' heir) though the marriage was largely a sham. Tiberius married her out of duty, but in so doing divorced his first wife Agrippina (daughter of Agrippa) and the matter seemingly created a rift.
The marriage with Julia was loveless and childless, and Julia's reputation as an adulterer would eventually grow to near epidemic proportions.
Initially, however, Tiberius, along with his brother Drusus, was sent to the Alps, Germania and Pannonia to expand Rome's interest there, and the situation was relaxed by Tiberius' absence.
Unfortunately, in a series of untimely deaths, Drusus Claudius Nero died while on campaign in Germania in 9 BC, and Tiberius was left as the only male heir of age.
While Drusus' children with Antonia (daughter of Augustus' sister Octavia and Marcus Antonius) would go on to play important roles farther down the dynastic line, succession matters would continue to be complicated.
By 6 BC, Tiberius was back in Rome, and was granted Tribunician powers much like Agrippa was before him.
Also like Agrippa, Tiberius was being sent to the east to act as Augustus' direct agent, but matters not completely understood intervened.
Rather than continue as Augustus heir, Tiberius retired to self-imposed exile on the island of Rhodes. While the reasons are not entirely known, it is speculated that several factors were involved.
His marriage to Julia was obviously a source of discontent. Augustus' rather obvious insistence that Gaius and Lucius Caesar would eventually succeed Tiberius (despite Tiberius having his own son by name of Drusus) seemingly played a role. Additionally, all the while Tiberius' mother Livia may have been scheming to advance her own line in Augustus' plans.
Despite Augustus' anger, Tiberius remained out of public life for several years while the favored heirs Gaius and Lucius Caesar were advanced.
Before long however, Julia's behavior finally caught up to the emperor. In 2 BC, she was accused of conducting an orgy in the Roman Forum, though to this point he was apparently in the dark about her alleged infidelities.
While this case may be a later addition to hype her misdeeds, there was no doubt as to her various affairs. Whether she behaved as such due to selfish pleasurable indulgence or as a means to political intrigue of her own (and her partners), her father had little choice but to make an example of such scandalous behavior.
To preserve his own honor, Augustus exiled her to the island of Pantederia, and several others were executed for involvement with her.
Among these was Jullus, the son of Marcus Antonius, who had been previously spared by the victorious Octavian in the civil wars.
Tiberius' behavior in response is confusing. In 2 AD, he returned to Rome as a private citizen, giving the impression that Julia truly was the source of the problem between he and Augustus. After Augustus' death, however, Tiberius allowed his ex-wife to return to the Italian mainland and live in more comfort, though she never would see Rome again.
Perhaps political machinations were more at the heart of Tiberius' self-imposed exile in the first place. Regardless, events were about to unfold that would force him back into political life.
In 2 AD, Gaius and Lucius Caesar, then of age for political service, met tragedies of their own that shook the very core of the imperial dynasty.
Lucius, at 19 years old, apparently drowned in Massilia while en route to campaign in Hispania, leaving Gaius as Augustus' only heir.
Gaius, also in 2 AD and at 22 years old, received a wound while campaigning in Armenia that he would eventually succumb to in 4 AD.
Tiberius was left with little choice but to return to public life, and was adopted by Augustus.
Postumus Agrippa was also adopted at this point, but for reasons that are not entirely clear (perhaps mental instability, or the political scheming of Livia) he faced exile in 6 or 7 AD. Likely to prevent possible issues of succession (as Postumus was Augustus' blood grandchild) he was executed shortly after Augustus' death in 14 AD.
After the deaths of Gaius and Lucius, and the exile of Postumus, Tiberius was left without a doubt as the only heir of Augustus. From that point on, the powers of Augustus were gradually bestowed upon Tiberius, and his official role as heir turned into a near official role as co-emperor.
Augustus still had the last word in the succession of the principate, however.
Tiberius was forced to adopt his nephew Germanicus (son of Tiberius' deceased brother Drusus and Antonia, Augustus' niece through Octavia and Marc Antony) despite having a son of his own.
In this way, Augustus assured that his own direct bloodline would eventually rule the Roman world.
While Germanicus would prove his own worth and capabilities in years to come, the son who succeeded Tiberius, Gaius (Caligula), would put a permanent stain on the Julio- Claudian dynasty.
How Long Did The Roman Empire Last?
The Roman Empire or imperial period (the time of the Roman emperors), is quite precisely stated to have lasted 503 years; beginning with the accession of Octavian/Augustus in 27 BC, through to the fall of Romulus Augustus (also known by his nickname, Augustulus), the last emperor in the Western Roman Empire (see the section ‘The Split into East and West' below) in 476 AD.
As we shall see further down, these 503 years were not a simple, straightforward period of one emperor neatly following on from his predecessor. At some times there were two or even four emperors in power at the same time, and the Empire was also divided into two when it was deemed too large to be suitably governed from one seat of power!
Why Did the Roman Empire Fall?
It would be difficult and unjust to put the fall of the Roman empire down to just one person or factor, as many of each played a part in it over at least two or three centuries.
From an increasingly fractious and sometimes bloody transfers of power, to a vast empire that was increasingly difficult to properly administer and rule, to the growing confidence and dangers posed by hostile peoples, the true cause of the fall of the Roman empire is likely to be a mixture of all of these and more.
With the death of Marcus Aurelius in AD 180, rule of the empire passed to his 20 year old son, Lucius Aurelius Commodus. Much like the reign of Caligula a century and a half earlier, the accession of Commodus was initially met with general approval. Continuing the parallel, initial acceptance was eventually met with dismay and hostility as the young emperor engaged in various forms of debauchery and egomaniacal behavior.
The concept of imperial decline beginning with the reign of Commodus is largely adapted from Edward Gibbon's rather arbitrary work, "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" and may have been a bit premature considering that the western empire endured for another three centuries.
However, Gibbon's assessment is astute in pointing out several elements that clearly identify a change from previous eras.
The accession of Commodus as the son of Marcus Aurelius marked the re-establishment of dynasty that was originally developed under the Julio-Claudians.
While the remaining years of the empire - especially the tumultuous 3rd century AD - would hardly be characterized by uninterrupted dynastic rule (in large part because of assassination and civil war), Commodus' reign marks the end of the adoptive period that provided immeasurable political stability since the death of Domitian.
Never again would Rome benefit from rulers who had the foresight to understand the stability provided by selective succession, and rather allowed personal and dynastic ambitions to play their role in the empire's eventual collapse.
Over the course of the next 50 years following Commodus, the empire would have no less than 26 different rulers and usurpers, in comparison to 18 confirmed Princeps over the empire's first two centuries!
Despite the role of politics in the ultimate failure of the Western Empire, there were many other elements at work.
While the influence of the legions and the praetorians continued to affect politics, there were periods of continued military strength, such as the reign of Septimius Severus.
However, long periods of civil war took its toll on the population and the legions, and military institutions began to slowly degenerate in much the same manner as political and social institutions.
Recruitment eventually shifted to the border provinces, and much later still it developed akin to the hiring of a "barbarian mercenary" force.
The legions were eventually altered from an army of conquest and economic plunder to a standing army of border guards. Such conditions have been associated with the reduction in military discipline and training standards. What once accounted for the main source of economic contribution to the overall state was now nothing more than a massive liability.
In addition, the mass citizenship incorporation of Caracalla in 212 AD also had the effect of minimizing the incentive for legionary/auxiliary enrolment.
Despite this, the collapse of military tradition was still some time off, and the later 2nd century AD only began to set the stage for the development of these conditions.
Many historians also present a strong argument that economic factors played a significant part in the ultimate collapse of the Roman Empire, and perhaps the most important factor associating the era of Commodus as the beginning of imperial decline was the status of the Roman economy.
The peaceful days of the pax romana were now over, and emperors began to have to continually spend money fighting off invasions or rebellions (both external and internal).
Inflation was a constant problem, both for citizens trying to buy food and goods, and for the emperor as it meant the military kept demanding more money in wages to compensate for the declining purchasing power of their pay.
The lack of slave imports via military conquest in an agrarian slave labor economy, the absence of military plunder, the limited supply and expense of valuable metal extraction which undermined the coinage and monetary system, the cost of grain doles, public welfare (alimenta) and appeasement of the populace through expensive games (i.e. bread and circuses), the growing bureaucracy, cost of luxury imports, etc. all played pivotal roles in weakening the economic state.
The increase in taxation, which developed into what might be considered a form of legal extortion, to compensate for the high cost of operating the state was not only economically stagnating, but had the effect of limiting voluntary contributions from the aristocracy and otherwise wealthy citizenship.
The effects of two major plagues within a century and the barbarization of the citizenry also had their own roles to play in destabilizing the empire of the late 2nd and 3rd centuries AD.
The Parthian campaigns of Lucius Verus and the Danubian campaigns of Marcus Aurelius also had the effect of massively draining a surplus treasury left over by the frugal Antoninus Pius.
Perhaps an energized and more experienced successor to Marcus Aurelius may have understood the potential benefit in seeing the Germanic Wars through to the conclusion envisioned by the emperor.
The settlement desired by Marcus Aurelius included imperial incorporation of his conquests in the form of new provinces (Marcomannia and Sarmatia).
While the wars did temporarily allow for peace along Rome's northern frontier, completion of the effort may have provided a temporary boost to the struggling economy and opened up new opportunities.
Instead of the potential for new opportunity, however, the rule of the western world was left to Commodus.
Why Did the Roman Empire Split in Two?
Just as is the case above for the decline of the Roman Empire, there is also no single reason for its split in two.
Primarily though, it was done in response to rising level of threats from external forces (and the subsequent need to speedily make decisions to respond to these threats), the shift from power being smoothly transferred solely on bloodlines to powerful military commanders thinking that they should be the ones in charge, and an emperor who decided that both of his sons would inherit the empire rather than just one.
It is difficult to state when the wheels of change first started turning in motion, but the late 3rd century AD was a time of great political instability (now referred to as the ‘Crisis of the Third Century' or the ‘Imperial Crisis' of 235 – 284 AD), when the Roman Empire faced much political infighting and numerous external threats.
The Romans were being menaced on their frontiers in the east by civilizations such as the Persians, a long way away from the decisions being made in Rome, which meant instructions and troop movements took a long time to get to where they needed to be.
Also, while some peoples were either willing to submit to Roman rule, or at least accepted it without putting up a fight, the Romans primarily expanded their territory through military conquest.
A general or commander who could inspire and achieve absolute loyalty to himself from his troops was a very powerful individual; something which had been proven right at the end of the Republic and the beginning of the Imperial period when Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon river with his XIII legion.
The change from a conventional single empire with one ruler began in the 3rd century AD, when the Emperor Carus bequeathed the empire to his two sons - Carinus and Numerian - to rule as co-emperors upon his death in 283 AD.
Although still one empire, the need for a western and an eastern seat of power, to counter respective threats from both sides (for example, the Persians in the east, and increasingly troublesome tribes in Germania and along the Danube river in the west).
Just a year later in 284 AD, amongst much death, speculation, rumour, intrigue and the like, Diocles, a person from fairly humble beginnings, had risen up through the ranks to become a prominent military commander, and found himself as sole ruler after being proclaimed as such by first his Eastern army, and then the Western one. Becoming known as Emperor Diocletian, much more information on his rise to power and rule can be found on his page by clicking here.
Trying to manage the entire empire himself, particularly with the existence of so many internal and external threats, was too much for Diocletian to handle on his own. So, in 285 AD, with no sons to even consider for the post, he promoted his friend and fellow officer Maximian to the position of co-emperor.
To further complicate matters, the two also took on an additional co-emperor each, with the intention that these two would assume the role of joint emperors in their own right after Diocletian and Maximian (which they did in 305 AD).
This party of four become known as the Tetrarchy, from a Greek term meaning "rule of four" or "rulership by four". Despite the term sounding like it was some kind of council or committee making the decisions, Diocletian was still very much at the top of the hierarchy.
The Split into Eastern and Western Empire
Dividing the administration of the Empire in two may have made sense at the beginning from a practical point of view, but it did – perhaps inevitably – result in future disputes over issues such as the allocation of troops and other resources.
As time went on the Eastern Empire increasingly became, in many people's eyes, the more prominent of the two sides. Its wealth grew and more attention was paid to its fortifications compared to the Western Empire, while economic and political problems plagued the Western Empire much more.
This culminated in Barbarian tribes such as the Goths managing to successfully raid and sack Rome in the years 410 and 455 AD, before the final blow came 21 years later.
In 476 AD the Emperor Romulus Augustus (also known as Augustulus) - aged about 11 years old at this time - was deposed by a barbarian uprising led by Odoacer, who had demanded land in Italy for his people upon which to settle but was refused.
Augustus' life was spared, but he was forced to give up his imperial title and retire to live in the Castellum Lucullanum (now called the Castel dell'Ovo) near modern-day Naples.
Odoacer became the first King of Italy (not to be confused with the earlier Kings of Rome) whilst recognizing the Eastern Emperor Zeno, with his capital in Constantinople, as his nominal suzerain (definition: a sovereign or state having some control over another state that is internally autonomous).
This date of 476 AD is typically considered by many to be the point at which the Roman Empire comes to an end. The Eastern Emperor Zeno was now sole emperor, with this Eastern Empire becoming known as the Byzantine Empire. It lasted all the way through to the year 1453 AD, until the capital of Constantinople was overrun by the Ottoman Empire during the reign of Emperor Constantine XI Palaeologus Dragatses.
For some people, they actually consider the year 1453 AD to be the true year in which the Roman Empire finally ended, as it can be argued that the Byzantine Empire was just a continuation of the Eastern Roman Empire. But for most, the year 476 AD is the date in which one of the greatest Empires the world has ever seen, finally came to an end.
Did you know...
Augustus' control of power throughout the Empire was so absolute that it allowed him to name his successor, a custom that had been abandoned and derided in Rome since the foundation of the Republic.
Did you know...
Primus Inter Pares is Latin for First Among Equals.
Did you know...
The cursus honorum was the sequential order of public offices held by aspiring politicians in both the Roman Republic and the early Empire.
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